Kashmiri cuisine

Kashmiri cuisine is the cuisine of the Kashmir Valley in the Indian subcontinent. Kashmiris have developed the art of cooking to a very high degree of sophistication and evolved a cuisine quite distinct from that of any part of the world. Rice is their staple food and has been so since ancient times. The equivalent for the phrase bread and butter in Kashmiri is haakh-batta (greens and rice). Meat along with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared on special occasions like Eid. A typical everyday Kashmiri meal — lunch and dinner — consists of a generous serving of rice (about 250 gms), mutton (100 gms) and vegetables (about 100gms, mostly greens) cooked in oil, and yoghurt (50 to 250 gms).

Kashmiris consume meat voraciously. Kashmiri cuisine is of two distinct types — wazwan is the food of the Muslims, and the Pandits have their traditional batta. They share a love for lamb; the love a Kashmiri has for meat is unparalleled. They are, per capita, the highest mutton consumers in the subcontinent. According to official data, around 2.2 million sheep are slaughtered in Kashmir every year on an average adding up to 21,000 tonnes annual meat consumption in the region. Despite being Brahmin, most Kashmiri Pandits are meat eaters. The amount of mutton that is required to be bought for a Kashmiri Pandit wedding feast is 650 gm per head (not considering chicken). Kashmiri Muslims prefer goat, especially young, while Kashmiri Pandits choose lamb. Meat is called Neni by Pandits and Maaz by Muslims in Kashmir. In a majority of Kashmiri Pandit and Muslim cooking, bread is not part of the meal; it’s always rice at lunch or dinner. Bread is only eaten with tea in the morning or evening.

The main daily staple food of the Muslims of Kashmir is plain cooked rice. They are typically not vegetarian, with very few exceptions. Meat stock is a salient ingredient even for so-called ‘vegetarian’ dishes. A joke shared is: Find me a Kashmiri vegetarian and I will give you a pot of gold.  However they often eat vegetable curries, with meat being an expensive indulgence. The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese (paneer), and legumes are somewhat similar to those of Kashmiri Pandits, except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of asafoetida.

In Muslim cuisine, spices are less used as compared to that in Pandit dishes. Cockscomb flower, called “moaval” in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes. Pandits use the mildly pungent Kashmiri red chili powder as a spice, as well as to impart colour to certain dishes. Muslims use chilies in moderate quantity, and avoid hot dishes at large meals.

There is also a notable difference in the mode of service and eating between Pandits and Muslims, especially in the case of feasts. Amongst Muslims usually four persons eat together, in one big tinned copper platter, called a “traem” in Kashmiri; this is a round vessel of around 45 centimetres (18 in) diameter, typically beautifully embossed.

History of Kashmiri cuisine

From the mythical Mahabharata to the Iranian invasion of Kashmir (which was a part of Gandhara) by Darius in 516 BC, to the Mauryans who established Srinagara to the Gupta Empire to the invasion of Kashmir by Timur in 1398, the culture and cuisine of Kashmiris are linked to the greater Indian, Persian and Central Asian cuisines mixed with local innovations and availabilities of ingredients. The term kabab is Arabic in origin, korma has Turkish roots, and rogan josh, yakhaen, ab gosht, rista and goshtaba stem from Persian sources.

Early History

The process of Kashmir’s amalgamation with outer world commenced with the importation of primitive forms of snake and fire worship from Iran. Since Paleolithic times, serpents were worshipped and buried with a supply of insects in their graves as a provision for their future life. In addition, they splashed grains at shrines and graves to express regard unto snakes and other animals.

The range of tools recovered at the Neolithic site of Burzahom, in the district of Srinagar shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits. The Period II (Ceramic Neolithic) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. Presence of harpoons indicates fishing. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram.

Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia.

At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41 km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear. Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits. Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (sus scrofa) and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (lepus), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.

On the basis of the presence of the Emmer wheat (Triticumdicoccum) crop at Kanispur, seven kilometres east of Baramulla, contacts of Harappans with the Neolithic Kashmir has been suggested. With the Aryan migration to Kashmir around the 8th century BC, the fire worship cult got embedded into the innate religio-cultural texture of Kashmir through practices such as a phallic emblem of cooked rice. The local ceremony of vayuk is again near to the Iranian style of Farvadin. On a special day of the month, Kashmiri Muslims remember their dead, visit their graves and distribute loaves of rice.

Indo-Greek & Kushana period

Earthen thalis (pans) have been found at Semthan, north of Bijbehara from the Indo-Greek period (200 BC – 1st century AD). The Kushana history tells us that right from the days of the Kushana rulers (1st century AD – 450 AD) there were contacts between Romans and Kashmir. Kashmir was connected to the southern silk route via Gilgit and Yasin valley at Tashkurghan. The main items of export to Rome were saffron and dolomiaea costus (kutha). Dolomiaea costus was used in Rome for various purposes, among which for scenting of food and seasoning of wine.

Hindu dynasties

There were military contacts between the Karkota kingdom in Kashmir and the Tang (618 AD – 907 AD) court in China. When the Chinese Tang Dynasty successfully defeated the Tibetan forces and entered little Palur in October 722 AD, Kashmir was credited for providing agricultural supplies essential to sustaining the Chinese troops stationed in Gilgit valley.

Kashmir Sultanate (1346 – 1580s)

Since Islam did not directly arrive from Arabia to Kashmir, it naturally carried with it mixed Iranian and Central Asian influences. Hence, the rishi cult identified with Hinduism in subscribing to vegetarianism, non-injury to animals and abstaining from the use of garlic and onion in food. Nund Rishi, according to a legend, subsisted on a diet of dried dandelion leaves and Lal Ded preached and practiced strict vegetarianism.

Moreover, when Yusuf Shah Chak, the last independent ruler of Kashmir signed a treaty with emperor Akbar recognising his symbolic sovereignty in 1586 one of the terms was that the mint, the saffron and game would remain under imperial control.

Mughals (1580s – 1750s)

In 1635–36, during Shahjahan’s reign, a violent conflict flared up between the Shias and Sunnis when a group of both the sections were eating mulberries at Maisuma and some were accused of using indecent words against Muhammad. In 1641, unprecedented floods followed by a famine rendered the villages desolate. Shahjahan sent 30,000 rupees to the subedar Tarbiyat Khan to be distributed among the destitute in Srinagar and also ordered that five centres should be opened in the valley to provide free food to the needy.

Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri texts

Foods mentioned in ancient Kashmiri scriptures/chronicles/travellers’ accounts include:

• • Rice, which could be imported from other countries in times of famine. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin diverted the waters of the Dal Lake into the Mar canal which he extended up to Shadipur where it emptied itself at the confluence of Jhelum and Indus. Owing to these irrigation works, and reclamation of large areas for cultivation, Kashmir became self-sufficient in rice production. The natives considered the hot water at Dewsur sacred, and said that when one wished to know if any undertaking will prosper, they must take an earthen vessel, fill it with rice, and having secured the mouth, so that water may be excluded, throw it into the holy font. If on coming up the rice was boiled, it was deemed a fortunate omen, but unpropitious if otherwise.
  • Pilau, yellow pilau, black pilau, shola pilau etc.
  • Bikabatta. A dish consisting of rice, goat’s fat and water.
  • Rice mixed with sugar and sugarcane.
  • Bread, it was not custom to eat naan until early 17th century.
  • Milk, of cows and probably of buffaloes was consumed.
  • Butter.
  • Diverse Fruits, (Apple, Crabapple, Pear, Peach, Apricot, Cherry, Mulberry, Walnut, Melon, Water Melon, Greengage, Gooseberry, Currants, Raspberry, Strawberry, Sour Cherry).
  • Musk-Melons, by the permission of Akbar, the crop was imported from Kashmir in the later season.
  • Guavas, considered to be ‘middling’ by Jahangir.
  • Diverse Vegetables, (Red Beet, Water Parsnips, Radishes)
  • Utpalaska, Kashmiri wopal haakh.
  • Rhubarb (pambahak), grew on the mountains surrounding Kashmir. Both Hindus and Muslims were fond of the stalks.
  • Turnips, The turnips (gogjee) of Haripur were said to be the best in the valley.
  • Kacchaguccha, modern kachdan.
  • Sanda, Kashmiri haand.
  • Carrots. The carrots (gazar) were eaten by the Muslim inhabitants but not by the Hindus.
  • Leeks. Leeks (gaudapraan) were not eaten by the Hindus of the valley.
  • Dimb. A vegetable found only in the Dal and Anchar lakes in Kashmir.
  • Raw Flesh.
  • Ram. Meat (mesa) was generally fried and sometimes highly spiced. The mutton of Nandipur was said to be the finest of Kashmir.
  • Meat juice (mamsa rasa), said to cure bodily pain.
  • Meat cooked in yoghurt.
  • Ducks
  • Pigeons.
  • Beef, Kashmiri mystic Nund Reshi or Sheikh Noor ud-Din Wali expressed his disdain for a preacher who ate beef (moshi) and then complained it was the ogre’s greed in one of his shruks. Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Zain-ul-Abidin had banned cow slaughter in the state in deference to the religious sentiment of his Hindu subjects.
  • Horse meat, was taken with relish in Kashmir.
  • Pork, domestic pigs (gramya sukara) were eaten in Kashmir without any adverse notice in the 11th century AD.
  • Poultry, the valley of Lolab was famous for the best quality of poultry. The practice of capon was known to the Kashmiris.
  • Chicken Soup (shurba literally meaning saltish water, ba is the reverse of aab meaning water). Prostitutes consumed meat soup for removing the body ache caused by sexual intercourse with men.
  • Other edible birds.
  • Dog’s flesh, cooked by people of Dom origin.
  • Handu sheep, delicate and sweet in flavour and wholesome.
  • Stags, chased down the Wular lake.
  • Fish Soup, eaten to keep up aphrodisiacal vigour by men addicted to women. Ksemendra also stated that a prostitute regained youth by consuming fish soup.
  • Trout
  • Danube Salmon.
  • Fowls (kukkuta). A favourite dish of the Kashmiris was to cook fowl and aubergines together.
  • Honey.
  • Boiled Eggs, the eggs were brought from Gilgit and Little Tibet (Ladakh) where they were procured in greater abundance.
  • Pircham, an omelette-like preparation.
  • Masura, a sort of lentil.
  • Samudga, moong dal. Feeding only on rice and samudga was known to be miserly. Invariably, beggars and ordinary travellers received different sorts of rice and pulses as alms from different houses and had to eat them mixed up together.
  • Kulattha, dolichos uniflorus.
  • Chanah, horse gram.
  • Other Pulses (including Peas and Broad Beans).
  • Parpata or papara, modern papad. Another kind of food made from pulses.
  • Ksira (kheer), rice boiled in milk.
  • Ksirprakara, Ksirvata, Ksirayastika etc., sweet dishes prepared from milk.
  • Machhama, a dish eaten by the Kashmiris consisting of rice, vegetables, raisins, colouring matter and sugar.
  • Walnuts, which were eaten during famine as shali rice became dear.
  • Pistachios.
  • Sugar-cane., the country around Martand was planted with the crop.
  • Grapes, grown only in Kashmir in India, according to Hiuen Tsang and which were rare even in Heaven, according to Kalhana. Of husaini and fakhri varieties from Khorasan.

Name of Dish	Part Mostly Used	Size of Pieces
Roghan Josh	Leg, shank, shoulder, chops of rib or loin (lean)	15-20 pieces per kg
Yakhean	Breast, loin chops, neck, tail portion (fatty)	15-20 pieces per kg
Tabakh Maaz/Qabargah	Ribs with fatty layer and skin	25-30 pieces per kg
Qaliya	Mixed fatty and lean pieces, some fatty portions of innards and tripe may be added	30-35 pieces per kg
Matschgand/Shyaem	Minced and pounded meat of leg, shank and shoulder	20-30 and 15-30 meatballs respectively
Rista/Goshtabeh	Minced and pounded meat of leg, shank and shoulder, suet and other fats of the animal added	According to desired sizes
Polav	Fatty pieces of any part	25-30 pieces per kg
Methimaaz	Innards and tripe, thoroughly cleaned	cut into very small pieces, after boiling
Tsoek Tsarvan	Liver	Diced into about 1/3 inch cubes
Tsagael Yakhean	Testes	Each cut into 4 to 6 parts

Famous chefs on Kashmir’s food

In India

For celebrity chef Sanjeev Kapoor, Kashmir’s food counts as one of the top three exotic foods of India. Chef Ranveer Brar loves Kashmiri tea, in which rose petals were added to give the regular milk tea a pinkish tint. Chef Thomas Zacharias went on a mission to discover unknown culinary gems in Kashmir. At dawn on his first day, he rode out in a shikara to Dal Lake’s bustling 150-year-old floating market and came away with boxes of saffron. Thomas sampled local cheeses and foraged greens in the village of Langanbal, an hour’s drive from Srinagar. Indian Accent’s Manish Mehrotra could follow the main course with Kashmiri haakh saag broth. He understands the rootedness of Kashmiri chilli and the way it is used in everyday cooking. The pioneering food writer Jiggs Kalra at his Delhi restaurant made a dehydrated version of the Kashmiri nadur churma topped with red chilli and served with tangy radish and walnut chutney.

In the UK

Madhur Jaffrey’s recipe of deep, rust-coloured Kashmiri roghan josh saved the British from terrible versions of curry cooked at home involving onions, cooking apple, chuck beef and astringent curry powder. English celebrity chef Rick Stein couldn’t film the cooking of roghan josh in Kashmir where the dish comes from because of security reasons but in homage to the classic recipe packs it with flavour. 50 Great Curries of India by Camellia Panjabi, the world’s best-selling curry book, has the unusual recipe of turnips (gogjee ta maaz) from Kashmir. British celebrity cook and restaurateur, Keith Floyd cooked Kashmiri lamb in milk (aab gosh) which makes for a nice, subtle, pale curry. When twice Michelin-starred chef Vineet Bhatia made a proper rogan josh in London in the early years, customers complained bitterly calling for British curry house capsicum garnish, so he decided to call it slow-cooked Kashmiri shank of lamb and that’s when the press started to take notice. British-based chef and television personality Atul Kochhar tends not to use ghee in roghan josh and marinates the meat in spice and yoghurt for a while. Michelin star chef Rohit Ghai’s recipe of dum aloo has baby potatoes and Greek yoghurt. Chef Romy Gill is particularly enthralled by the area of Kashmir, and says she was fascinated by the wazwan likening it to the nose to tail movement. She was inspired by the lamb and vegetarian dishes and when she returned to the U.K., made a whole roast chicken using the Kashmiri spices. Chef Cyrus Todiwala OBE loves cumin and Kashmiri chillies.

In the USA

Michelin star chef Vikas Khanna is a huge fan of Kashmiri cuisine. Chef Chintan Pandya of Adda Indian Canteen in Long Island City combines cumin, chili and musky lamb to cook his Kashmiri lamb ribs. Pandya says the inspiration for the dish is a Kashmiri classic called tabak maaz, where the lamb is first cooked in milk and then browned in butter. Guy Fieri featured Kashmiri lamb roghan josh on his TV show Diners, Dive-Ins, and Drives. Anthony Bourdain was hoping to shoot in Kashmir and was excited about visiting but the security situation there was problematic. Food and wine expert Antoni Porowski was shocked by the amount of garlic in traditional Kashmiri dishes, but loves the really thick dhals. Mike Bagale, who, until recently, was the executive chef at Alinea in Chicago, one of America’s most sought after dining experience, stopped in Srinagar at a spice shop and could smell the cinnamon as he approached it. At his work station, instead of charcoal, his brazier is filled with cinnamon sticks and the aroma of cinnamon envelops the kitchen.

In Australia

Melbourne-based chef Gary Mehigan, popularly known for his 12-year long stint as a judge on MasterChef Australia found the creatively plated Kashmiri morels with goat’s testicles at the Indian restaurant Bombay Canteen interesting.

Contemporary Kashmiri cuisine

Prateek Sadhu, formerly at Masque (Mumbai) is mining his Kashmiri roots to win international fame. His food is characterised by dishes such as lobster roghan josh, roghan josh sausages and raisin-glazed quail served with a yakhni broth. He sourced quince from Kashmir and made an ice-cream with it. Entrepreneur Tariq Ahmad, the ‘Pizza Man’ of Kashmir, set chicken on roti and sold it to customers in wazwan loving Kashmir. US-based Kashmiri entrepreneur Uffaq Mattu ships chicken patties, harissa bites, shaami kabaab burgers, crumbled tschaman and tamatar pizzas to almost all the 50 states in the US. At her Uffi’s Kitchen, French fries were replaced with Nadir Monje, and chicken wings by waaze kokur wings. At Rooh, San Francisco, they make the signature dish of tabakh maaz with Californian Superior Lamb, and French braising techniques. Helly Raichura, chef-founder of EnterViaLaundry in Melbourne has 10-course degustations serving Gujarati khandvi with Kashmiri chilli oil. Noon in Mumbai has kimchi fermented with Kashmiri red chillies. 2019 Masterchef Australia contestant Sandeep Pandit was born in Kashmir, and cooks tamatar gaad (tomato fish) using Australian barramundi.

Sustainable consumption

Kashmiri women would previously take extra mutton dishes by packing them in old newspapers or plastic bags that they would carry. With time, this tradition became popular, and men soon began travelling with the remaining mutton on their traem (wazwan copper dish). In Kashmir, taking leftover food into carrying bags evolved into a movement, and people also granted it social legitimacy. Even the elites have joined the cause and begun providing specially made carry bags of leftover food. Even the leftover rice is not wasted in marriage functions and is served to animals (dogs, cattle etc.).