The following is a table of many of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots, with their cognates in all of the major families of descendants.
Notes
The following conventions are used:
- Cognates are in general given in the oldest well-documented language of each family, although forms in modern languages are given for families in which the older stages of the languages are poorly documented or do not differ significantly from the modern languages. In addition, modern English forms are given for comparison purposes.
- Nouns are given in their nominative case, with the genitive case supplied in parentheses when its stem differs from that of the nominative. (For some languages, especially Sanskrit, the basic stem is given in place of the nominative.)
- Verbs are given in their “dictionary form”. The exact form given depends on the specific language:
- For the Germanic languages and for Welsh, the infinitive is given.
- For Latin, the Baltic languages, and the Slavic languages, the first-person singular present indicative is given, with the infinitive supplied in parentheses.
- For Greek, Old Irish, Armenian and Albanian (modern), only the first-person singular present indicative is given.
- For Sanskrit, Avestan, Old Persian, Parthian, the third-person singular present indicative is given.
- For Tocharian, the stem is given.
- For Hittite, either the third-person singular present indicative or the stem is given.
- In place of Latin, an Oscan or Umbrian cognate is occasionally given when no corresponding Latin cognate exists. Similarly, a cognate from another Anatolian language (e.g. Luvian, Lycian) may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Hittite.
- For Tocharian, both the Tocharian A and Tocharian B cognates are given whenever possible.
- For the Celtic languages, both Old Irish and Welsh cognates are given when possible. For Welsh, normally the modern form is given, but occasionally the form from Old Welsh is supplied when it is known and displays important features lost in the modern form. A Middle Irish cognate is given when the Old Irish form is unknown, and Gaulish, Cornishand/or Breton (modern) cognates may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Welsh.
- For the Baltic languages, Lithuanian (modern) and Old Prussian cognates are given when possible. (Both Lithuanian and Old Prussian are included because Lithuanian often includes information missing in Old Prussian, e.g. due to lack of written accent marks in the latter.) Similarly to the Celtic situation, Old Lithuanian forms may occasionally be given in place of modern Lithuanian; Latvian (modern) may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Lithuanian.
- For the Slavic languages, Old Church Slavonic cognates are given when possible. Forms from modern Slavic languages or other Church Slavic dialects may occasionally be given in place of Old Church Slavonic.
- For English, a modern English cognate is given when it exists, along with the corresponding Old English form; otherwise, only an Old English form is given.
- For Gothic, a form in another Germanic language (Old Norse; Old High German; or Middle High German) is sometimes given in its place or in addition, when it reveals important features.
Kinship
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *méH₂tēr- “mother” | mother (< OEmōdor) | ON móðir“mother” | māter“mother” | mḗtēr“mother” | mā́tṛ, mātṛ́“mother” | Av mātar-“mother” NPersmādar | OCSmati, mater-“mother” | Lithmóteris“woman”, motina; OPrusmuti“mother” | Gaul. mātīr“mother”,OIr māthir“mother”; Wmodryb“auntie” | mayr“mother” | motër“sister” | A mācar, B mācer“mother” | |
| *pH₂tér- “father” | father (< OE fæder) | fadar “father” | pater “father” | patḗr “father” | pitṛ́ “father”; Pitrs “spirits of the ancestors” (litt. “the fathers”) | Av pitar-(nom. also pta, ta), OPers pita“father”, NPerspadar | OIr athir“father”; Welsh edrydd“paternal domain” | hayr “father” | A pācar, B pācer“father” | ||||
| *bʰréH₂ter- “brother” | brother (< OEbrōþor) | brōþar“brother” | frāter“brother” | pʰrā́tēr“member of a phratry (brotherhood)” | bʰrā́tṛ“brother” | Av brātar-, OPersbrātar-, Ossetianärvád“brother, relative”, NPersbarādar, Kurdish bira | OCSbratrŭ“brother” | Lithbrõlis, OPrusbrati“brother” | GaulBratronos(pers. name); OIrbrāth(a)ir, Wbrawd (pl. brodyr) “brother” | ełbayr (gen. ełbawr) “brother” | A pracar, B procer“brother” | Lyd brafr(-sis)“brother” | |
| *swésor “sister” | sister (< OEsweostor, influenced by ONsystir) | swistar“sister” | soror “sister” | éor “sister” | svásṛ“sister” | Av x̌aŋhar-“sister”; NPersḫwāhar“sister” | OCSsestra“sister” | Lith sesuõ (seser̃s), OPrussestra“sister” | Gaulsuiorebe“with two sisters” (dual)OIr siur, Wchwaer“sister” | kʿoyr (kʿeṙ), nom.pl kʿor-kʿ “sister” | vashë, vajzë “girl” (< *varjë < *vëharë < PAlb*swesarā) | A ṣar’, B ṣer“sister” | |
| *dʰugH₂-tér-“daughter” | daughter(< OEdohtor) | daúhtar“daughter” | Oscan futír“daughter” | tʰugátēr“daughter”; Myc tu-ka-te“daughter” | dúhitṛ“daughter” | Avdugədar-, duɣδar-, NPersdoḫtar“daughter” Kurdish dot“daughter” | OCSdŭšti, dŭšter-“daughter” | Lithdukteris, OPrusdukti“daughter” | Gaulish duxtir“daughter”; Celtib TuaTer(duater) “daughter” | dustr“daughter” | A ckācar, B tkācer“daughter” | HLuwtúwatara“daughter”;?Lyd datro“daughter”; CLuw/Hittduttarii̯ata-;Lyc kbatra“daughter” | |
| *suHnú- “son” | son (< OEsunu) | sunus “son” | huiós “son” | sūnú- “son” | Av hunuš“son” | OCSsynŭ“son” | Lithsūnùs, OPrussuns“son” | ? CeltibEBURSUNOS“son of Eburos (?)”? Celt/LusEQUEUNUBO(< *ekwei-sūnu-bʰos) “to the sons on the horse” | ustr “son” | çun“boy/son” | A se, B soyä“son” | ||
| *nepot- “nephew, grandson” | obsolete neve“nephew, male cousin, grandson” (< OEnefa) | OHG nevo“nephew” | nepōs (nepōtis)“grandson, nephew” | népodes“descendants” | nápāt-“grandson, descendant” | Av napāt-, naptar-, OPersnapāt-“grandson, descendant” | OLithnepotis, OPrusneputs“grandson” | OIr nïæ“sister’s son”, W nai“nephew” | nip“grandson, nephew” | ||||
| *dāiH₂u̯ēr- “husband’s brother, brother-in-law” | OE tācor“husband’s brother” | OHG zeihhor“husband’s brother” | levir“husband’s brother” | dāēr“husband’s brother” | devṛ́, devará“husband’s brother” | OCSděverĭ“brother-in-law” | Lithdieveris“husband’s brother” | W daw(f)“brother-in-law” | taygr“husband’s brother” | ||||
| *snusós “daughter-in-law” | OE snoru“daughter-in-law” | OHG snur“daughter-in-law” | nurus“daughter-in-law” | nuos“daughter-in-law” | snuṣā-“daughter-in-law” | Old Ir. *(s)nušáhBactrianασνωυο(asnōuo) NPers.sunoh / sunhār“daughter-in-law” | OCSsnŭxa“daughter-in-law” | W gwaudd“daughter-in-law” | nuse“bride” | nu“daughter-in-law” | |||
| *wedʰ- “pledge, bind, secure, lead” | wed (< OEweddian“to pledge, wed”) | vadhū́“bride” | OCSvoditi “to lead” | ||||||||||
| *su̯ek̂rū́- “mother-in-law” | OEsweger“mother-in-law” | swaihr“mother-in-law” | socrus“mother-in-law” | ekurā“mother-in-law” | śvaśrū́-“mother-in-law” | OCSsvekry“mother-in-law” | Lithšešuras“father-in-law”, OPrusswasri“mother-in-law” | W chwegr“mother-in-law” | skesur“mother-in-law” | vjehërr“father-in-law” | |||
| *h₂éwh₂os “maternal grandfather, maternal uncle” | awō“grandmother” | avus“grandfather”; avunculus“maternal uncle” | Rus uj, vuj“uncle” (obsolete); Ukr vuyko“maternal uncle” | Lithavynas“maternal uncle”, OPrusawis“uncle” | MW ewythr, MBre eontr, MCo eviter“maternal uncle” (< PCelt awon-tīr“uncle”) | OArm haw“grandfather” | B āwe“grandfather” | ḫuḫḫa-, Lycχuga-“grandfather”;CLuw ḫu-u-ḫa-ti“grandfather” (abl.-ins.) | |||||
| *yemH- “twin; to hold” | ON Ymir | geminus“twin”; Remus “twin, Remus” |
yáma-“twin; first man to die” | ||||||||||
| h₁widʰéwh₂ “widow” < *h₁weydʰh₁- “to separate” | widow (< OE widwe) | widuwō“widow” | vidua“widow” | vidhávā“widow” | OCSvŭdova“widow” |
People
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *dʰĝʰemon-“person, human (litt. of the earth)” | OE guma“person, man”, brȳdguma“bridegroom“ | guma“man” | homō“person” | khthōn “the earth”; khamai “on the ground” | kṣám“ground, earth” | OCSzem(l)janinъ“earthling” | OLithžmuõ“person”; Lithžmoná“wife”; OPruszmunents“human” | OIr duine, Wdyn “person” < *dʰĝʰom-yo- | A śom“boy”; B śaumo“person” | ||||
| *H₂ner-“man, hero” | ONNjǫrðr(name of a God) | Ner-ō (personal name), neriōsus“strong” | anḗr (andros)“man” | nár- (nom. nā) “man, person” | Av nar-(nom. nā) “man, person” Kurdishnêr “male animal, masculine” | OCS naravŭ“character, custom”; | Lith nóras“wish, want”, narsa; narsùs“brave;” OPrusnàrs“courage” | W nêr “lord, prince, leader; hero”; Celtnarto“strength” | ayr (aṙn)“man, person” | njer “man, person” | |||
| *wiH-ro-“man” | werewolf (< OE wer “man”) | waír“man” | vir “man” | vīrá- “man, hero” | Av vīra-“man, hero” | (possibly) OCS viro-“self-minded”; Belar(Smolensk) вір “a rite of passage for young men into adulthood”; (Mogilev) віра “a feast or meal organized by a young man, after reaching adulthood, for his companions” | Lith výras“man”; OPruswirs“man, husband” | OIr fer, Wgŵr “man” | burrë“man” | A wir“young” | |||
| *gʷén-eH₂-“woman, wife” | queen (< OEcwēn “queen, woman, wife”) | qēns (qēnáis), qinō“woman, wife” | gunḗ(gunaikos)“woman, wife” < *gʷun-eH₂;Boet baná“woman” | gnā (gnā́s-)“wife of a god”, jánis, jánī“woman, wife” | Av gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, NPers zan“woman, wife” Kurdish jin“woman, wife” | OCS žena“woman, wife” | OPrusgena“woman, wife” | Gaulbnanom “of the women” (g. pl.);OIr ben (mná)“woman, wife” < *gʷén-eH₂(*gʷn-eH₂-s), bé (neut.) “wife < *gʷén; Wbenyw“woman” | kin (knoǰ)“woman” | zonjë “lady, wife, woman” < *gʷen-yeH₂; Gheg grue, Tosk grua“wife” < *gʷn-ōn | A śäṁ (pl. śnu), B śana“woman, wife” | Hittku(w)an(a)“woman”;Luw wanatti“woman, wife”; Lydkãna-“wife”,“woman” | |
| *pótis“master, ruler, husband” | -faþs“lord, leader” | potis “able, capable, possible” | páti“master, husband, ruler” | OCS gospodĭ“lord, master” | |||||||||
| déms pótis“master of the house” | despot < Gk.despótēs“lord, master, owner” | dámpati“lord of the house; (dual) husband and wife” | |||||||||||
| gʰóstis“guest, host, stranger” | guest (< OEgiest); host < Lat. hostis; hospital, hostel, hotel < Lat. hospes |
gasts“guest” | hostis“stranger, guest”; hostīlis“hostile”; hospes, hospit-“host, guest, visitor” < hostipotis < PIE *gʰóstipotis(*gʰóstis + *pótis) | OCS gostĭ“guest”; gospodĭ“lord, master” < PIE *gʰóstipotis | |||||||||
| *weyḱ-“settlement, to enter, settle” | -wick, -wich < Lat. vīcus, economy < Gk. oiko·nomía“management of household administration” | vīcus“village, settlement” | oîkos“house, dwelling place” | viś“settlement, dwelling space” | OCS vĭsĭ“hamlet, village” | ||||||||
| *h₃rḗǵs“king, ruler” | royal, regal < Lat. rēg- | reiks, -ric (in personal names) “king” | rēx, rēg-“king” | rāj-, rājan“king” | Gaulish *rīx“king” |
Pronouns and particles
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *egH₂ “I” | I (< OE ic̣) | ik “I” | egō “I” < *egoH₂ | egṓ, egṓn “I” | ahám “I” < *egH₂-om | Av azǝm, OPersadam, Parth. az“I” < *egH₂-omKurdishez “I (direct case)” | OCS azŭ“I” | Lith àš, OLith eš, OPrus as, Latv es “I” | es “I” | es “I” | u, unë “I” (-në possibly originally a suffix) | ñuk “I” | ūk “I” influenced by ammuk“me” |
| *H₁me- “me (acc.)” | me (< OEmē, mec < *H₁me-ge) | mik “me (acc.)” | mē(d)“me (acc.)” | emé, me“me (acc.)” | mām “me (acc.)” < *H₁mē-m, mā “me (acc. encl.)” | Av mąm “me” | OCS mę“me (acc.)” < *H₁mē-m | Lith manè“me (acc.)” | OIr me-sse, mé, W mi “I” | is “me (acc.)” <? *H₁me-ge | mua, mue “me (acc.)” < *H₁mē-m | ammuk“me (acc., dat.)” < *H₁me-ge, -mu “me (acc. encl.)” | |
| *H₁meĝʰi “me (dat.)”,*(H₁)moi “me (dat. encl.)” | me (< OEmē) | mis “me (dat.)” | mihi “me (dat.)” | moi “me (dat., gen. encl.)” | máhya(m)“me (dat.)”, mḗ, me“me (dat. encl.)” | Av maibya “me (dat.)” (? not in Pokorny), me(Old Avestanmoi) “me (dat. encl.)” | OCS mi(dat enc.) < *(H₁)moi | Lith man“for me”, OPrusmaiy “me (dat. encl.)” | OIr infix -m-“me”; W -‘minfixed accusative first person singular pronoun “me” | inj “me (dat.)” | meje | ammuk“me (acc., dat.)” < *H₁me-ge, -mi “me (dat. encl.)” | |
| *H₁meme-, *H₁mene-“of me, mine”; * H₁mo-yo-, * H₁me-yo-“my” | my, mine(< OE mīn< *H₁mei-no-) | meins“my”; meina “of me” | meī “of me”; meus“my” < *H₁me-yo- | emeĩo “of me”; emós“my” | máma “of me”; ma/mā“my” <*H₁mo- | Av mana, OPersmanā “of me”; Avma (m/n), mā (f) “my” | OCSmene “to me”, moj/a/e(m/f/n) “mine” | Lithmana(s), OPrusmais/maia“my” | W fyn “of me, my”; Bretonma “of me, my” | im “my” | im “my” (article i+ em) | AB ñi“my” < Proto-Tocharian*mäñi | miš “my” < *H₁me-yo- |
| *tu “you” (nom. sg.) | thou (< OEþū “you”) | þu “you” | tū “you” | Doric tú(standard sú) | t(u)vám“you”; | Av tū “you”NPers to “you” | OCS ty“you” | Lith tù, OPr tu“you” | OIr tū, tu-ssu, tu-sso, W ti | du “you” | ti “you” | A tu, B t(u)we“you” | zik, zikka“you” < *tega < *te+ *egō |
| *wei “we”; *n̥s-mé, encl.*nos “us” | we (< OEwē), us (< OE ūs < PGerm*uns < *n̥s) | weis“we”, uns“us” | nōs “we, us” | hēm-“we, us”;Aeolámme“us” < *asme < *n̥sme | vay-ám“we” < *wei-óm, asmān“us” < *n̥sme + acc. -ān, encl. nas“us” < *nos | Av vaēm “we”, ahma “us”, encl. nǝ̄, nā̊, nō “us” | Bulg nìe“we”, OCSgen. nasŭ“us” < *nōs-sōm | Lith mès“we”; OPrgen. nōuson“ours” < *nōs-sōm | OIr ni “we, us” <? *s-nēs, gen. ar n- < *n̥s-rō-m; Wni “we” < *nēs | na “we” < *nŏs, ne “us” < *nōs | A was, B wes “we” | wēs “we” < *wei-es, anzāš “us”, encl. naš“us” | |
| *yū “you (nom. pl.)”; *us-wé, *us-mé,encl. *wos “you (acc./dat. pl.)” | ye (< OEgē “you (nom. pl.)”), you (< OEēow“you (acc./dat. pl.)”) | jūs “you (nom. pl.)”, izwis“you (acc./dat. pl.)” | vōs “you (nom./acc. pl.)” | hum-“you (pl.)”; Aeolúmme“you (acc. pl.)” < *usme | yūyám“you (nom. pl.)”, yuṣmā́n“you (acc. pl.)” < y- + *usme + acc. -ān, encl. vas“you (obl. pl.)” | Av yūžǝm, yūš“you (nom. pl.)”, yūšmat̃ “you (abl. pl.)”, encl. vā̊ “you (obl. pl.)” | OCS vy“you (nom./acc. pl.)”, vasŭ“yours (pl.)” | Lith jũs“you (nom. pl.)”, jũsų“yours (pl.)”; OPriouson“yours (pl.)” | OIr sī, sissi“you (nom. pl.)” < *sw-, uai-b “of you (pl.)” < *ō-swī, NIr far n-“your (pl.)”; Wchwi “you (nom. pl.)” < *sw- | ju “you (nom. pl.)” < *u< *vos | A yas, B yes “you (nom. pl.)” | sumes < *usme | |
| *s(w)e- “oneself”; (reflexive pronoun) | self (< OEself, seolf) | swes (ref. gn. pn.), OHG sih(ref. pn.) | sē (ref. pn.) | hé (ref. pn.) | sva- (ref. pn.) | Avestan hva-(ref. pn.) | Bulg sèbe“oneself”, OCS svoji(ref. gn.pn.) | Lithsava(s), OPrusswajs “my own, myself” | OIr fein (self, himself); Whun(an) “self, myself, himself/herself etc” | iwr self, himself/herself | vetë | A ṣn-i, B ṣañ “(one’s) own” | Lydians’fa- (ref. pn.), Cariansfes (ref. pn.) |
| *kʷid, kʷod “what” | what (< OEhwæt) | ƕa“what” | quid“what?”, quod“what…, that…” | tí“what?”, tì“what…” | kím“what” | NPers či, če“what” | Bulgkakvò“what”, OCS čь-to “what?” | Lith kàd“that…”; OPruskawids“which, what a” | OIr cid“what?” | *i (ēr) (< *hi), inčʿ (< *hi-nč’) “what?” | çfarë“what?” | kuit (?) “what”, kuit-ki“whatever”; Luvian kuit“what?” | |
| *kʷis, kʷos, kʷei/kʷoi“who” | who (< OEhwā < *kʷoi) | ƕas“who?” | quis“who?”, quī“who…” | tís, Thesskís, CyprArcsís“who?”, tìs“who…” | kás, kís“who?” | Av kō (ka-hyā, ča-hyā) “who?, which?”, čiš“who” | Bulg kòj“who”, OCS kъ-to (česo)“who?” | Lith kàs“who?”; OPrus kas“who” | OIr cia, Wpwy “who” | о (oyr)“who?””who?” | “A” kë“B” kushacc. “who?” | A kus, B kuse“who, which” | kuiš “who, which” |
| *-kʷe “and; any” | -(u)h“and”, ƕaz-uh“whoever” | -que“and”, quis-que“each one, whoever”; Venetic -ke “and”; South Picenian -p “and” | -te “and”, tís te, hós-te“whoever” | -ca “and”, káś-ca“whoever” | Av ča, OPers čā“and”; Av čiš-ca, OPers čiš-čiy“whoever” | Bulg če“but, and, because”; Old Czecha-če, ač“if” | OIr na-ch, MW nac “not” < “*and not”;Lepontic -pe“and” | o-kʿ“whoever” | Lydian -k“and”; Hittkuis-ki, Lycian ti-ke“whoever” | ||||
| *n̥- “not, un-“ | un- (< OEun-) | un- “un-“ | in-(archaic en-) “un-“ | a-, an-“un-“ | a-, an-, na- “un-“ | Av, OPers a-, an-“un-“ | OCS ne-“not” < *ne- | Lith ne- < *ne-, OPrus ni-“not” | OIr in-, ē-, an-, W an-“un-“ | an- “un-“ | nuk “not” | AB a(n)-, am-, e(n)-, em-, on-“un-“ |
Numbers
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *sem- “one, together” | same (< ONsamr); OEsam-“together”; | sama“same” | sem-el“once”, sem-per“always”, sim-plex“single, simple”, sin-gulī“one each, single” | heĩs, hén, mía “one” < *sems, *sem, *smiH₂ | sam-“together”,samá“same, equal, any” | Avhama-, OPershama-“any, all” | OCS samŭ“self, alone, one” | Lith sam-, są- “with”; OPrus sa-, sen- “with, dividing” | OIr samlith“at the same time”; Whafal“equal” | mi “one” | A sas, B ṣe “one” < *sems | ||
| *ói-nos, ói-wos“one” | one (< OEān) | ains “one” | ūnus(archaic oinos) | oĩnos “one (on a die)”, oĩ(w)os “alone” | (ēka- < *oi-ko-; Mittani-Aryanaika-vartana“one turn (around a track)”) | Av aēva-, OPersaiva-“one, only, alone” | OCS inŭ“one, another” | Lithvíenas, OPrusains “one” | OIr ōen, Wun “one” | andr-ēn“right there”, ast-ēn“right here” | ? Gheg tânë, Tosk tërë “all” < PIE *tod-oino-; ??? një “one” < *ňân < PIE *eni-oino- | B -aiwenta“group” < “*unit” | |
| *dwóH₁ , neut. *dwóy(H₁)“two” | two (< OEtwā) | twái (fem. twōs, neut. twa) “two” | duo “two” | dúō “two” | dvā́(u)“two” | Av dva, fem. neut. baē “two”NPers do “two“ | OCS dŭva“two” | Lith dù, OPrusdwai “two” | OIr da, Wdau (fem. dwy) “two” | erku “two” | dy “two” | A wu, B wi “two” | dā-, ta-; HLuwtuwa/i-“two”; Lyckbi- “two”; Mil tba“two” |
| *tréyes (fem.*tisres,neut. *tríH₂) “three” | three (< OEþrīe) | þreis“three” | trēs“three” | treĩs “three” | tráyas(fem. tisrás) “three” | Av ϑrayō, ϑrayas(fem. tisrō, neut. ϑri), OPersçi-, Parthhrē“three” | OCS trĭje“three” | Lith trỹs, OPrus tris, Latg treis“three” | OIr trí(fem. téoir), Wtri (fem. tair, teir) “three” | erekʿ“three” | tre masc., trifem. “three” | A tre, B trai“three” | tri- “three”; teriyas-(gen. pl.) |
| *kʷetwóres(fem.*kʷétesres, neut. *kʷetwṓr) “four” | four (< OEfēower) | fidwor“four” (In Germanic influenced by pénkʷe “five”) | quattuor“four” | téssares “four” | masc. catvā́ras(acc. catúras), neut. catvā́ri, fem. cátasras“four” | Av masc. čaϑwārō(acc. čaturąm), fem. čataŋrō“four”; NPersčahār“four” | OCS četyre“four” | Lith keturì, OPrusketturei“four” | Gaulpetuar“four”OIrceth(a)ir(fem. cethēoir, influenced by fem. tēoir“three”) “four”; Wpedwar(fem. pedair) “four” | čʿorkʿ, kʿaṙ (rare)“four | katër “four” | A śtwar, B śtwer“four” | (remodelled) |
| *pénkʷe “five” | five (< OEfīf) | fimf “five” | quīnque“five” | pénte “five” | páñca“five”; Mittani-Aryanpanza-“five” | Av panča“five” | OCS pętĭ“five” | Lith penkì, OPruspenkei“five” | Gaulpinpe-, pompe“five”OIr cóic, Wpum(p)“five” | hing “five” | pesë “five” | A päñ, B piś “five” | |
| *swék̂s “six” | six (< OEsiex) | sáihs “six” | sex “six” | héx, dial. wéx “six” | ṣáṣ “six” | Av xšvaš“six” | OCS šestĭ“six” | Lith šešì, OPrusuššai “six” | Celtib sues“six”;Gaulsuexos“sixth”; OIrsé, Wchwe(ch)“six” | vecʿ “six” | gjashtë “six” | A ṣäk, B ṣkas “six” | |
| *septḿ̥ “seven” | seven (< OE seofon) | sibun“seven” | septem“seven” | heptá “seven” | saptá“seven”; Mittani-Aryanšatta-“seven” | Av hapta“seven” | OCS sedmĭ“seven” | Lithseptynì, OPrusseptinnei“seven” | OIr secht, W saith“seven” | eawtʿn“seven” | shtatë “seven” | A ṣpät, B ṣukt“seven” | sipta-“seven” |
| *H₁ok̂tō(u)“eight” | eight (< OEeahta) | ahtáu“eight” | octō“eight” | oktṓ “eight” | aṣṭā́(u)“eight” | Av ašta“eight” | OCS osmĭ“eight” | Lithaštuonì, OPrusastonei, Latgostoni“eight” | Gaul oxtu-“eight”OIr ocht n-“eight”;W wyth“eight” | utʿ “eight” | tetë “eight” < *H₁ok̂tō-t- | A okät, B okt “eight” | Lyc aitãta“eight” |
| *(H₁)néwn̥“nine” | nine (< OEnigon) | niun “nine” | novem“nine” | ennéa “nine” | náva“nine” | Av nava“nine” | OCS devętĭ“nine” < *newn̥-ti-(Influenced by dékm̥t“ten”) | Lithdevynì(influenced by dékm̥t“ten”), OPrusnewinei“nine” | OIr noí n-, W naw“nine” | inn “nine” | nëntë “nine” < *newn̥-ti- | AB ñu | Lyc nuñtãta“nine” |
| *dék̂m̥t “ten” | ten (< OEtien) | taíhun “ten” | decem“ten” | déka “ten” | dáśa “ten” | Av dasa“ten” | OCS desętĭ“ten” | Lithdẽšimt, OPrusdesimtan“ten” | Gauldecam-“ten”;Celtibtekam-“ten”;OIr deich, W deg, deng “ten” | tasn “ten” | dhjetë “ten” < *dék̂m̥t-i- | A śäk, B śak “ten” | |
| *wī́k̂m̥tiH₁“twenty” < *dwi-dk̂m̥t-iH₁“two tens” | (remodelled) | (remodelled) | vīgintī“twenty” | eíkosi “twenty” | viṁśatí“twenty”, dviṁśatí“twenty” | Avvīsaiti, Ossetianinsäi“twenty” | (remodelled) | Lithdvidešimt“twenty” | OIr fiche (fichet), OW uceint“twenty” | kʿsan“twenty” | zet “twenty” | A wiki, B ikäṃ“twenty” | |
| *k̂m̥tóm“hundred” < *dk̂m̥tóm | hundred (< OE hund, hund-red) | hunda (pl.) “hundred” | centum“hundred” | he-katón “hundred” | śatám“hundred” | Av satǝm“hundred” | OCS sŭto“hundred” | Lithšim̃tas, OPrussimtan“hundred” | OIr cét, Wcan(t)“hundred” | A känt, B kante“hundred” |
Body parts
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *(d)ák̂ru- “tear” | tear (< OE tēar, tæhher) | tagr“tear” | lacrima“tear” | dákru “tear” | áśru“tear” | Av asrū- “tear” | OPrusassara“tear”, Lithašara “tear | OIr dēr, Wdeigr “tear”; Cornishdagr “tear” | artawsr“tear” < *drak̂ur | A ākär“tear”, B pl. akrūna“tears” | isḫaḫru“tear” | ||
| *dn̥ĝʰuH₂-, *dn̥ĝʰwéH₂“tongue” | tongue (< OE tunge) | tuggō“tongue” | lingua“tongue” (archaic dingua) | jihvā́“tongue” < *ĝiĝʰwā, juhū́ | Av hizvā < *ĝiĝʰwā, OPershizān, Parthezβān“tongue” | OCS języ-kŭ “tongue” < *n̥ĝʰū-k- | OPrusinzuws“tongue”, Lithliežuvis“tongue” | teng“tongue”; Wtafod“tongue, language” | lezu“tongue” (influenced by lizem, “I lick”) | A käntu, B kantwo“tongue” (*kantwa< *tankwa) | |||
| *ésH₂r̥, *esH₂nés“blood” | archaic aser, sanguis“blood” (< possibly h₁sh₂-én-obl. stem + guen) | éar “blood” | ásṛj, asnás“blood” | Lat asins,Ltg asnis (gen. ašņa)“blood” | ariwn“blood” | A ysār“blood” | ēsḫar (esḫanas)“blood” | ||||||
| ĝ(o)nH₂dʰos “jaw, cheek, chin” | chin (< OE c̣inn) | kinnus“cheek” | gena“cheek” | génus (génuos)“chin, jaw”; gnátʰos, gnatʰmós“jaw” < *ĝnH₂dʰ- | hánu-ṣ“jaw” < *ĝʰenu-s, gaṇḍa“cheek” | Av zānu- “jaw-” < *ĝʰenu-s, OPers danūg< *danu-ka-, Parth zanax“chin, jaw” NPers gune “cheek” chune “jaw” | OPrusżauna“jaw”, Lithžándas“cheek” | OIr gi(u)n“mouth”; Wgên, pl. geneu“cheek, chin”; Old Cornish pl. genau < *genewes“cheeks, chins” | cn-awt“jaw, cheek” | A śanwe-m “jaw” | |||
| *ĝénu, ĝnéus “knee” | knee (< OE cnēo) | kniu“knee” | genū“knee” | gónu (Homgen. gounós < *gonwós) “knee”, pró-kʰnu “with outstretched knee” < *pró-gʰnu | jā́nu– “knee”, pra-jñus“bow-legged” | Av acc. žnūm, dat./abl. pl. žnubyō“knee”, fra-šnu- “holding the knee forward”; Parthzānūk, NPerszānū “knee” | cunr, nom pl. cungkʿ“knee” | gjuni“knee” < Post-PIE *ĝnu-n(o)- | A kanweṃ, B keni“two knees” | genu“knee” | |||
| *ǵómbʰos “tooth, row of teeth” | comb (< OE camb) | OHGkamb“comb” | gómphos“bolt, nail”; gómphíos“molar tooth” | jámbha-“tooth, tusk; set of teeth (pl.)”; jámbhya-“molar teeth” | Pash žâma“jawbone”; Khot ysīmä“tooth” | OCS zǫbŭ, Ukr zub, Pol ząb“tooth” | Latv zùobs“tooth”; Lithžam̃bas“sharp edge” | dhëmb“tooth, tusk” | A kam, B keme“tooth” | ||||
| *H₁dónt-, *H₁dn̥t-“tooth” | tooth (< OE tōþ < *H₁dont-) | tunþus“tooth” < *H₁dn̥t- | dēns (dentis)“tooth” < *H₁dn̥t- | odṓn (odóntos)“tooth” < Proto-Greek*edónt-, cf. Aeol. édontes“teeth” | dán, dántas“tooth” | Av dantan-, dātā “tooth” NPers dandân “tooth” | Russ.desná“gum” < *H₁dent-sn- | OPrusdants“tooth”, Lithdantis“tooth” | OIr dēt“tooth”, Wdant “tooth” | atamn“tooth” | |||
| *H₂óst- “bone” | os (ossis)“bone” | ostéon“bone” | ásthi (asthnás)“bone” | Av ast-, asti-(gen. pl. astąm, instr. pl. azdbīš) “bone” NPersostoxan “bone” | OCS kostĭ“bone” | OIr asil“limb”, MIrasna “rib” <? *astonyo-; MW ass-en, asseu “rib”, W asgwrn“bone” < *ost-ko- | os-kr“bone” | asht, ahstë“bone” | B āy, pl. āsta“bone” | ḫastāi-“bone” | |||
| *H₂ous- “ear” | ear (< OEēare) | áusō“ear” | auris “ear” | oũs “ear” | ūṣa“cavity of the ear” | Av uši “both ears”; NPershoš “ear” | OCS ucho (ušese)“ear” | OPrusauss “ear”, Lith ausis“ear” | OIr āu, ō“ear” | unkn, nom pl. akanǰkʿ“ear” | vesh“ear” < *ōus, *ōs- | ||
| *H₃okʷ- “eye” | eye (< OEēage) | áugō“eye” | oculus“eye” < *ōkʷelo-s | ósse “both eyes”; ómma “eye” < *óp-mn̥; ökkon“eye” | ákṣi (akṣṇás)“eye” | Av aši “both eyes” | OCS oko“eye” | OPrus aks“eye”, Lithakis “eye” | OIr enech, W enep“face” | akn, nom pl. ačʿkʿ“eye” | sy “eye” | A ak, B ek“eye” | |
| *k̂erd- “heart”; *k̂red-dʰē- “to believe” | heart (< OEheorte) | haírtō“heart” | cor (cordis)“heart”; crēdō “I believe” < *krezdō- < *k̂red-dʰē- | kardíā, Homerickradíē, Cypriotkorízdā“heart” < *k̂r̥d(y)ā; poetic kẽr (kẽros)“heart” < *k̂ērd | hṛd“heart” < post-PIE *ĝhr̥d; hṛdaya, hārdi“heart”; | Av zǝrǝd“heart” < post-PIE *ĝhr̥d; | OCSsŭrdĭce“heart”, serda“medium, core” | OPrussiran“heart” (acc.), seyr“heart”, serds“core”, Lithširdis“heart”, šerdis“core” | OIr cride“heart”; Wcraidd“center”; | sirt “heart” | A kri“will”, B pl. käryāñ“hearts” | Hitt karz (kardias)“heart”; Luw zarza“heart” | |
| *h₃nebʰ- “navel, hub”; *h₃nóbʰōl “navel” |
navel (< OEnafola); nave (< OE nafu) |
umbilīcus“navel”; umbō“elbow” |
omphalós“navel; umbilical cord” | nā́bhi“”navel, belly button; center; nábhya“nave, center part of a wheel” |
|||||||||
| *kréwh₂- “gore, blood (blood outside the body)” | raw“uncooked food” (< OE hræw“corpse, carrion”) | ON hrár“raw” | cruor“thick blood, gore”; crūdus“raw, bloody”, crūdēlis“cruel, rude” | kréas“flesh, meat”; kréa“raw flesh” | krávis-“raw flesh”; kravyá“raw flesh, carrion”, krūrá“bloody, raw” | Av xrūra, xrūma“bloody”; vi-xrūmant-“bloodless”; xrvi.dru “of the bloody mace ” YAv xrvišyant“grim, bloodthirsty” | OCS kry“blood”; Ruskrovǐ“blood” | OPruscrauyo, krawian; Lithkraũjas“blood”; Latv kreve“coagulated blood,bloody scab” | OIr crúaid, MIr crū“blood” | ||||
| *nas- “nose” | nose (< OE nosu) | ON nǫs“nose” | nāsus, nāris“nose” | nas-“nose” | Av nāh-, nā̊ŋhan-, OPers acc. sg. nāham “nose” | OCS nosŭ“nose” | OPrus nasi“nose”, Lithnosis“nose” | ||||||
| *pōds, *ped- “foot” | foot (< OE fōt) | fōtus“foot” | pēs (pedis)“foot” | poús (podós)“foot” | pāt (padás)“foot” | Av pad-, OPers pād, Parth pāδ“foot” NPers pa “foot” | OCS pěšǐ“on foot” | OPrus pida“foot”, Lithpėda “foot” | OIr īs“below” < PIE loc. pl. *pēd-su; Wis(od)“below, under; lower (than)” | otn “foot”, otkʿ “feet” | poshtë“below” | A pe“foot”, B paiyye“foot” | pata-, CLuwpāta-, Lycpedi-“foot” |
| *yḗkʷr̥, yekʷnés “liver” | jecur (jecinoris)“liver” | hẽpar (hḗpatos)“liver” | yákr̥t (yaknás)“liver” | Av yākarǝ, NPers ǰigar, Pashto yī̆na“liver” | Serbianjetra “liver”, Serbian and Macedonianikra “fish roe” | OPrusjakna, Lataknas“liver”, Lithjeknos | W (i)afu“liver”; MIri(u)chair (i(u)chrach)“fish roe” | leard“liver” | Luwianikkuwar/n-“liver” | ||||
| *ǵʰésr̥ ~ *ǵʰs-r-és“hand” | hir “hand” (rare, anatomical) | kheír“hand” | hás-ta“hand” | Av zas-ta“hand” | jeṙ “hand, arm” | dorë“hand” | A tsar, B ṣar “hand” | keššar“hand”,Luwianīssaris“hand” | |||||
| *bʰeh₂ǵʰús “arm” | bough (< OE bōg) | pêkhus“forearm” | bāhú“arm” | ||||||||||
| *h₃bʰrúHs “eyebrow” | brow, Scot broo(< OE brū) | ophrū́s“eyebrow” | ‘bhrū́“eyebrow” | OCS bry“eyebrow” |
Animals
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ék̂wos “horse”, “fast animal” | OE eoh“horse” | aíƕa-“horse” | equus“horse” | híppos“horse”; Myc i-qo“horse” ( < *ïkkʷos) | áśva- “horse”; Mittani-Aryanaššu- “horse” | Av aspa-, OPers asa-“horse”; Ossetianyäfs“horse” < *yék̂wosNPers asp“horse” | OCSjastrębъ“hawk” (literally “a fast bird”) | OPrus kaiwi“mare”, Lithašva “mare | OIr ech; MWebawl “horse” < PBryth*ep-ālos | ēš“donkey” | A yuk, B yakwe“horse” | Luwianásùwa“horse”; Lycianesbe“horse” | |
| *gʷōus “cattle” | cow (< OEcū) | Old Saxonkō, OHGchuo “cow” | bōs (bovis)“cattle”;Umbrian acc. bum “cow” | boũs, Dorbõs (bo(w)ós)“cattle, cow” | gáus (gṓs)“cow” | Av gāuš (gāuš)“cow” NPers gāv “cow” | Croatiangòvedo“cattle” < PSlav*govędo; OCS gu-mǐno“threshing floor” | Latvian gùovs“cow”, Lithkarvė “cow”, galvijas “a cattle” | OIr bó (bóu/báu)“cow”; OWbuch “cow” < *boukkā, bu-gail“cowherd” < *gʷou-kʷolyos | kov “cow” | ka “ox” | A ko “cow”, B keu“cow” | HierLuvwawa-, Lycianwawa-, uwa- “cow” |
| *péḱu “livestock” | fee; fief; feud (< OEfeoh“livestock, property, money”); | faihu“property, posessions, wealth, riches, money” | pecū “cattle, domestic animals”; pecūnia“money” | páśu, paśú“livestock” | Lith pēkus“cattle” | ||||||||
| *H₂ówi- “sheep “ | ewe (< OEēow“sheep”, ēowu“ewe”) | awistr“sheepfold”; OHG ouwi, ou “sheep” | ovis “sheep” | ó(w)is“sheep” | ávi- “sheep” | Wakhiyobc “ewe” < PIran*āvi-či- | Bulg ovèn“ram”, OCSovĭ-ca“ewe” | OPrusawwins“ram”, Lithavis “female sheep” avinas “ram” | OIr ōi“sheep”; Wewig “deer” | hov-iw“shepherd” | B eye“sheep”, ā(u)w“ewe” | Luvianhāwa/i-, Lycianχawa-“sheep” | |
| *H₂rtk̂os “bear” | ursus “bear” | árktos“bear” | ŕ̥kṣa- “bear” | YAv arša, Ossetianars “bear” , NPers xers“bear” | Lith urgzti “to growl” | MIr art, Warth “bear” | arǰ “bear” | arí “bear” | ḫartaqqas(name of a beast of prey) | ||||
| *k̂won- “hound, dog” | hound (< OE hund“dog”) | hunds“dog” | canis “dog” | kúōn (kunós)“dog”; Mycku-na-ke-ta-i, Att/Ionkunegétes“huntsman” (litt. “those who guide dogs”) | śvan(śunas)“dog” | Av spā(acc. spānǝm, pl. gen. sū̆nam), MPers sak, Kurdish se, seg, Wakhišač “dog” | Bulg kùt͡ʃe“dog”, OCSsuka “bitch (female dog)” | OPrus sunnis“dog”, Lithšuo, šunis(acc pl.) “dog”, Latvsuns “dog”, Ltg suņs“dog” | OIr cú (con), W ci “dog” | šun “dog” | possibly qen(disputed, possible Latin loan) | AB ku“dog” (acc. A koṃ, B kweṃ) | Hittitekuwaš(nom.), kunaš(gen.); HierLuvsuwanni“dog”;Lyd kan-“dog” |
| *muH₁s- “mouse” | mouse, Scotmoose (< OE mūs) | ON mús“mouse” | mūs “mouse” | mũs“mouse” | mū́ṣ- “mouse” | OPers muš“mouse” (? not in Pokorny; Pokorny has NPersmūš“mouse”) Kurdishmişk“mouse” | OCS myšĭ“mouse” | mukn“mouse” | mi “mouse” | ||||
| *uksḗn “ox, bull” | ox (< OEoxa) | auhsa “ox” | ukṣán “bull, ox” | uxšan“bull” | MW ych; MidIr oss“stag, cow”; MBret ouhen | B okso“draft-ox” | |||||||
| *táwros “bull” | taurus, Osctaurom(acc.) | taûros | stawra-“bull” | OSl turŭ | Lith taüras; OPr tauris“bison” | Gaul tarvos(taruos) “bull”; OIrtarb | tarok | ||||||
| *suHs- “pig” | sow (< OEsū) | ON sýr“sow” | sūs “pig” | hũs, sũs“pig” | sū-kara- “pig”; Hindi sūvar“pig” | Av hū(gen. sg.) “pig” , NPers xuk“pig” | Bulg svinjà“swine, sow” | Latviansuvẽns, sivẽns“piglet” | OIr socc sáil“sea pig”; Whwch “sow, swine” | khos “pig” | thi “pig” | B suwo“pig” | |
| *wl̥kʷos “wolf” | wolf (< OEwulf) | wulfs (wulfis)“wolf” | lupus “wolf” | lúkos“wolf” | vŕ̥ka- “wolf” | Av vǝhrka-“wolf” , NPersgorg “wolf” | Bulg vɤ̞lk“wolf”, OCSvlĭkŭ “wolf” | OPrus wilks“wolf”, Lithvilkas “wolf” | OIr olc (uilc)“evil” | aghves“fox” | ujk < OAlbulk “wolf” | B walkwe“wolf” | ulippana“wolf” |
| *wl(o)p “fox” | vulpes “fox” | alṓpēx“fox” | lopāśá “fox, jackal” | Av urupis“dog”, raopi- “fox, jackal” | Lith lãpė“fox”; Lapskojis“fox’s leg” (river name); vilpisÿs “wild cat”; Latvlapsa “fox” | Bre louarn“fox” (< PCel*loɸernos) | ałuēs “fox” | Toskdhelpër, Ghegdhelpen“fox” (< *dzelpina < *welpina) | ulipzas (ú-li-ip-za-aš) “wolf”;Luwian ú-li-ip-ni-eš(nom. sg.), wa-li-ip-ni(dat.-loc. sg.) “fox” | ||||
| *ĝʰans- “goose” | goose (< OE gōs), gander (< OE ganra) | OHG gans“goose” | (h)ānser“goose” | kʰḗn, Dorickhā́n“goose” | haṁsá-“goose” | Av zāō“goose” (? not in Pokorny); Sogdianz’γ “kind of bird” , NPers ɣaz“goose” | Bulg gɤ̞ska“goose”, OCS gǫsǐ“goose” | OPrus zansi“goose”, Lithžąsis “goose” | OIr gēiss“swan” Wgwydd“goose” | gatë“heron” | |||
| *H₂enH₂-t(i)- “duck” | Scot ennet“duck” (< OE ened) | OHG enita“duck” | ānas “duck” | nessa, netta“duck” | ātí- “waterfowl” | Osseticacc “Wild duck” , NPersordak“duck” , NPers ɣu“swan” | Russ. utka“duck” | OPrus ants“duck”, Lithantis “duck” | W hwyad(en)“duck” | baht“duck” | rosë “duck” | ||
| *H₁elH₁ēn “deer” | élaphos“deer”; Hom ellós“young of the deer” | OSl jeleni“deer”; Russ oleni“red deer” | Lith élnis “red deer”; Lithélnė “hind” < *H₁elH₁ēniHx“hind, cow-elk” | NWel elain“hind” < *H₁elH₁ēniHx“hind, cow-elk”OIr elit“doe” | ełn “hind” | B yal, ylem“gazelle”B ylaṃśke“young gazelle” | aliya(n)-“red deer” | ||||||
| *H₁eĝʰis “hedgehog” | OE igil“hedgehog” (< Proto-Germanic*igilaz) | ON ígull“sea-urchin” | MycGr e-ki-no;ekhînos“hedgehog” | Oss wyzyn“hedgehog” | OSl jezĭ“hedgehog”; Rus ež“hedgehog” | Lith ežȳs“hedgehog” | ozni“hedgehog” | esh, eshk“porcupine, hedgehog” | |||||
| *bʰébʰrus “beaver” | beaver (< OE beofer) | OHG bibar“beaver”; OIc biorr“beaver” | fīber“beaver” | babʰrú“mongoose” | Av baβra-“beaver” | Ukr bober“beaver”;Rus bobr“beaver” | Lith bebrùs“beaver”; Pruss bebrus“beaver” | Gaul bebru- ; OIr Bibar | |||||
| *H₃er-on “eagle” | erne “a sea eagle” < OE earn“eagle” | ara “eagle”; OHG arn“eagle” | (Avernus“entrance to the underworld” (< AncGrkáornos“birdless”)) | órnis“bird”; Myco-ni-ti-ja-pi“decorated with birds(?)” | OSl orǐlŭ“eagle”; Rusorël “eagle” | Lith ăras, ĕras, erẽlis“eagle”; Latvērglis, OPrusarelie “eagle” | MBret erer, MW eryr, MIrirar “eagle” (< *eriro) | OArm oror“gull”, MArm urur“kite” | orr “eagle, falcon” (rare) | Hitt ḫaran-“eagle”; CLuwḫarrani(a/i)“a type of (oracular) bird”; Palaa-ra-na-aš“eagle” | |||
| *h₂éngʷʰis; *h₁ógʷʰis“snake”, “serpent” | OHG unc“snake”; engiring“maggot” (diminutive of angar“large larva”) | anguis“snake, serpent, dragon”; anguilla “eel” | ópʰis“serpent, snake”; énkhelus“eel” | áhi “snake, serpent; name of Vrtra” | Av aži“snake”, Persianyağnij“grass snake” (archaic); Azhi Dahāka | OEstSl užĭ“snake”, Rus už“grass snake”; Polwęgorz“eel” | OPrus angis“snake”, angurgis“eel”; Lithangis “viper”, ungurys“eel”; Latvodze, odzs(dialectal) “viper, adder”; | OArm awj“snake”, iž, iwž “viper” | B auk“snake” | Illuyanka“mythical snake foe” | |||
| *h₂eyǵ- “goat” | aíx “goat” | eḍa “a kind of sheep” | |||||||||||
| *h₂egʷnós “lamb” | yean “to give birth to” (< OEēanian) | agnus “lamb” | amnós“lamb” | OCS agnę“lamb” |
Food and farming
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ĝr̥H₂-no- “grain” | corn (< OEcorn “grain”) | kaúrn“corn” | grānum“grain” | dhānya-“grain, cereal” | OCS zrŭno“grain” | OPrus zirni“grain”, Lithžirnis “pea”, girna“millstone” | OIr grān, Wgrawn“grain” | cʿorean“wheat, grain, corn” | grurëToskgrun, gruniGheg”grain” | ||||
| *H₂éĝros “field” | acre (< OEæcer “field”) | akrs“field” | ager (agrī)“field” | agrós “field” | ájra-“meadow” | art “soil” | arë “field” | ||||||
| *H₂erH₃- “to plow” | OE erian “to plow” | arjan “to plow” | arō (arāre)“to plow”, arātrum“plow” | aróō “I plow” < *H₂erH₃-oH₂, árotron“plow” | hala- “plow” | OCS orjǫ (orati) “to plow”, ralo< *ar(ə)dhlom“plow” | OPrus artun“to plow”, Litharti “to plow” | MIr airim “I plow”, Warddu “to plow” < *arj-; MIr arathar, W aradr“plow” < *arətrom < *H₂erH₃-trom | ara-wr“plow” | arë “arable land” *H₂r̥H₃-uer- | AB āre“plow” | ||
| *H₂melĝ- “to milk” | milk (< OEmeolc, mioluc) | miluks (miluks)“milk” | mulgeō (mulgēre)“to milk” | amélgō “I milk” | mā́ršti, mā́rjati, mr̥játi“(he) wipes, cleans” | Avmarǝzaiti, mǝrǝzaiti“(he) grazes (barely touches)” | Russ. CSmŭlzu (mlěsti) “to milk”, Polmleko“milk” | OPrusmilztun “to milk”, Lithmelžti “to milk” | W blith“milk, dairy produce; full of milk”, MIrbligim “I milk” < *mligim, melg “milk” | miel, mil “I milk” | A malke B malk-wer“milk” | ||
| *melH₂- “to grind” | meal (< OEmelu) | malan“to grind” | molō (molere) “to grind” | múllō “I grind” | mr̥ṇāti, mr̥nati “(he) grinds” | Av mrāta-“tanned soft” | OCS meljǫ (mlětĭ) “to grind” | OPrusmaltun “to grind”, Lithmalti “to grind” | OIr melim “I grind”; Wmalu “grind” | mał“sieve” mał-em “I grind, crush” | mjell“flour” | A malywët“you press”; B melye“they trample” | mallai“grinds” |
| *gʷréh₂wō“quern, millstone” a | quern (< OE cwerne) | *qairnus | grā́van“stone, rock, stone for pressing out the Soma juice” | OCS žrĭny“millstone” | |||||||||
| *meli-t, *mel-nés“honey” | mildew (< OE mele-dēaw“honeydew”) | miliþ“honey” | mel (mellis)“honey” | méli (mélit-)“honey”; Attmélitta“bee”; Mycme-ri, me-ri-to“honey” | milinda“honey-bee” | OIr mil, Wmêl “honey” | mełr“honey” | mjal, mjaltë“honey” | milit“honey”; CLuw ma-al-li“honey”;Pala malit-“honey” | ||||
| *médʰu “honey”, “mead” | mead (< OEmedu) | midus“mead” | mēdus “a type of mead” | métʰu “wine” | mádʰu “sweet drink, honey” | Proto-Iranianmádu“honey, wine” | OCS medŭ“honey”; Bulg med“honey” | OPrusmeddu“honey”, Lithmedus“honey”, midus “a honey beverage”;Ltg mads“honey” | OIr mid“mead”; Wmedd“mead” | B mit“honey” | CLuwmaddu-“wine” (originally “sweet drink”) | ||
| *tuh₂-ró-s“cheese” | butter (< Gk. boútūros“cow cheese”) | tūrós“cheese” | |||||||||||
| *sal- “salt” | salt (< OEsealt) | salt“salt” | sāl (salis)“salt” | háls (halós)“salt” | sal-ilá- “salty” | OCS solǐ“salt” | OPrus sals“salt”, saldus“sweet | OIr salann, W halen“salt” | ał “salt” | ngjel-bëtë, ngjel-mëtë“salty”, njel-m “to be salty” | A sāle, B salyiye“salt” | ||
| *seH₁- “to sow (seed)”, *séH₁mn̥ “seed” | sow (< OEsāwan), seed (< OEsēd “that which is sown”) | saian “to sow”; OHGsāmo“seed” | serō (serere) “to sow” < *si-sH₁-oH₂, sēmen“seed” | sasá– “corn, herb, grass”, sasyá- “corn, grain, fruit, crop of corn”, sī́ra-“Saatpflug” (seed plow?) | OCS sějǫ (sějati) “to sow”, sěmę“seeds” | OPrus situn“to sow”, simen“seed”, Lithsėti “to sow”, sekla “seed”, semenis“linseed” | OIr sīl, W hil“seed” < *seH₁-lo- | sermn“seed” | isḫūwāi “(he) sows” | ||||
| *yugóm “yoke” | yoke (< OEġeoc) | juk“yoke” | iugum“yoke” | zugón“yoke” | yugá·m“yoke” | Av yaoj-, yuj- “to harness” | OCS igo“yoke” | OPrus jugtun“yoke”, Lithjungas“yoke” | W iau “yoke” | luc “yoke” | A yokäm“door” | yugan“yoke” | |
| *yéwos “cereal, grain; spelt, barley” | Epic zeiā́“einkorn wheat”; Cretan deaí“barley” | yáva “grain, cereal; barley” | Av yauua-“cereal”; Pers jow“barley, grain”; Oss jäv“corn, grain” | Rus ovín“barn, granary”;Pol jewnia, jownia(dialectal) “granary” | Lith jãvas “a type of cereal”; javaĩ(pl.) “cereals”; Latv javs, java “infused (with fermentation)” | Ir eorna“barley” | B yap“dressed barley” | e(u)wa(n)“cereal (a kind of barley)” | |||||
| *mḗms “meat” | mimz“flesh” | membrum“limb, member” < mēms-rom “flesh” | mā́ṃs, māmsá-“meat” | OCS męso“meat” | |||||||||
| *h₂ébōl “apple” | apple (< OEappel) | apel | (Osc Abella“town name”) | OCSablŭ·ko“apple” | Lith obuolys“apple”, OPrwobalne“apple”; Latvābols “apple (fruit)”, ābele“apple tree” | Gaul Aballo“place name”; OIraball, Wafall, OBraball(en)“apple tree” |
Bodily functions and states
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *H₂enH₁- “to breathe” | OE ōþian“breathe hard” < PGerm*anþōjanã | *uz-anan “to expire”, ON anda“to breathe” | anima “breath” | ánemos“wind”; Anemoi “(deified) winds” | ániti “(he) breathes” | Av ā̊ntya, parā̊ntya(gen.) “breathing in and out” | OCSvonja“smell” < *H₂en-yeH₂ | OIr anāl“breath” < *H₂enH̥₁-tlo- ; W anadl“breath” | hołm “wind”, anjn “person” | Gheg âjTosk ēnj “I swell” | AB āñm-“spirit”, B añiye“breath”, B anāsk-“breathe in” | ||
| *swep- “to sleep”, *swepnos“dream (n.)” | archaicsweven“dream, vision” (< OEswefn); NoEngsweb “to swoon” (< OEswebban“to put to sleep, lull”) | ON sofa “sleep (v.)”; Svafnir“Sleep-Bringer (a name of Odin)” | somnus “sleep (n.)”; sōpiō(v.) “make asleep” | húpnos“sleep (n.)” | svápna-“sleep, dream (n.)” | Av xᵛafna-“sleep (n.)” NPersxwãb-“sleep” | OCSsŭpati“sleep (v.)”, sŭnŭ“sleep (n.), dream (n.)” | OPrussupnas“dream”, Lithsapnas“dream” | OIr sūan, Whun “sleep (n.)” | kʿnem “I sleep”, kʿun “sleep (n.)” | gjumë“sleep (n.)” | TA ṣpäṃ, TB ṣpane“sleep (n.), dream (n.)” | sup-, suppariya-“to sleep” |
| *bʰewdʰ- “to be awake, be aware” | bid (< OEbēodan); bede (< OEbēden); bode (< OEbodian) |
anabiudan | punthánomai“I learn” | bódhati “(s/he) is awake”; bodháyati“(s/he) awakens, arouses”; buddhá-“awake” |
OCSbljusti “to watch”; buditi “to wake (someone) up”; bŭždrĭ“alert, cheerful”; |
||||||||
| *sweid- “sweat” | sweat (< OEswǣtan“to sweat”) | ON sveiti | sūdor “sweat (n.)” | (e)ĩdos“sweat (n.)” | svḗda-“sweat (n.)” | Av xᵛaēda-“sweat (n.)” | Latviansviêdri(pl.) “sweat (n.)” | W chwys“sweat (n.)” < *swidso- | kʿirtn “sweat (n.)” | dirsë, djersë“sweat (n.)” < *swí-drōxty- | B syā-lñe“sweating” < *swid-yé- | ||
| *H₁ed- “to eat” | eat (< OEetan) | itan “to eat” | edō (ēsse) “to eat”, ēst “(he) eats” | édō “I eat”, Homeric athematic infinitive édmenai “to eat” | ádmi “I eat”, átti “(he) eats” | Av subj. aδāiti “(he) should eat” | OCS jamĭ“I eat” < *H₁ēd-mi, jastŭ “(he) eats” | OPrusistun “to eat”, ėsti, Lith “to eat”, ėdmi “I eat” | OIr ci-ni estar“although he doesn’t eat”; W ys “eats” < *H₁ed-ti | utem “I eat” < *ōd- | ha “to eat” | ēdmi “I eat” | |
| *peH₃- “to drink” | potable (< OFpotable)imbibe (< Lat. bibere“to drink” via OFimbiber) | bibō (bibere) “to drink”, pōtus“drink (n.)”; pō·culum“beaker” | pī́nō, pépomai “I drink” | pā́ti, píbati“(he) drinks”; pā·tra-“cup, vessel” | Av vispo-pitay-“alltränkend” giving water/drinks to all | OCS pijǫ (piti) “to drink”, Proto-Slavicpȋvo“drink, beer, beverage” | OPrusputun “to drink”, puja “a party”, Lithpuota“party” | OIr ibid“drinks” < *pibeti; Wyfwn “we drink” | əmpem “I drink” | pī “I drink” | pāsi “he swallows” | ||
| *ǵews- “to test, to taste” | choose (< OEċēosan) | Goth kiusan “to prove, to test”, kausjan “taste”; OHG kiosan“choose” | gustus “taste” | geúomai“taste” | juşate, joşati“enjoys” | Av zaoś-“be pleased” | OCS(vŭ)kušati“to offer a meal, to give for tasting” | OIr do-goa“choose” | desha “I loved”; dashje“liking, taste, preference” (< PAlb*dāusnja) | kukuš(-zi)“taste” | |||
| *ĝenH₁-, *gi-ĝnéH₁(-sk̂)-, *ĝn̥-néH₁-“to give birth” | kind (< OE(ġe)cynd); OEcennan“produce” | -kunds “born”; OHG kind “child” | gignō (gignere)“to produce” (OLat. genō); nā-scor (nāscī) “to be born” < *ĝn̥H₁-skṓ-r | gígnomai “I become” | jánati “(he) gives birth”, jajanti“they give birth” | Av zīzǝnti, zīzanǝnti“they give birth” | OPrusgamintun“to give birth”, gimdyti“to give birth” | OIr -gainethar“who is born” < *ĝn̥-ye-tro;W geni “to be born” | cnanim “I am born, bear” | dhëndër, dhândër“son-in-law, bridegroom” < *ĝenH̥₁-tr- | AB kän-“to come to pass (of a wish), be realized” | ||
| *H₂eug-, H₂weg- “to grow, increase” | eke (< OEēacian “to increase”); wax (of the moon) (< OEweaxan“to grow”) | aukan, auknan “to increase (intr.)”, wahsjan “to grow” < orig. caus.*H₂wog-s-éy-onom | augeō (augēre)“to increase (tr.)”; auctor “grower – promoter, producer, author etc”; augmentum“growth, increase”; augur < augos“aggrandizement”; augustus“majestic, venerable” |
a(w)éksō “I increase (intr.)”, aúksō, auksánō “I increase (tr.)” | úkṣati “(he) becomes stronger”, vakṣáyati “(he) causes to grow”; ójas, ōjmán“strength, vitality, power”; ugrá-“immense, strong, hard”; | Av uxšyeiti“(he) grows”, vaxšaiti “(he) causes to grow” | OCS jugъ“south” (the direction to where the Sun rises) | OPrusaugtwei“to grow”, Lith augti” to grow” | OIr fēr, Wgwêr “fat” < *weg- | ačem “I grow, become big” | A oksiṣ “(he) grows”; A okṣu, В aukṣu“grown” | ||
| *weǵ- “fresh, strong; lively, awake” | wake (< OEwacian); watch (< OEwæċċan) | gawaknan “wake up, arouse” | vegeō (vegēre)“be alert, awake, smart”; vigor “id”; vigil “awake, watching” | vā́ja-“strength, energy, vigour, spirit”; vájra-“hard; mace; thunderbolt; diamond”; vājáyati “(s/he) impels” | |||||||||
| *gʷiH₃wo- “alive”, *gʷiH₃wo-teH₂“life” | quick (< OE cwicu“alive”) | qius “alive” | vīvus “alive”; vīta“life” | bíos, bíotos“life”, zoo“animal” | jīvá-, jīvaka-“alive”, jīvita·m, jīvā́tus, jīvathas“life” | Av gayō, acc. ǰyātum“life”, -ǰyāiti-“life-“; Avǰva-, OPersǰīva- “alive” | OCS živŭ“alive”, žitĭ, životŭ“life” | OPrusgiws“alive”, giwata“life”, Lithgyvas“alive”, gyvatė“snake” | OIr biu, beo, W byw“alive”; OIrbethu (bethad), Wbywyd “life” < Proto-Celtic*bivo-tūts | keam “I live” < *gʷi-yā-ye-mi | B śai- “to live” < *gweiH₃-ō | ||
| *mer- “to die” | murder (< OEmorþor < *mr̥-tro-m) | maúrþr “murder” | morior (morī) “to die” < *mr̥-yōr, mortalis “mortal” | brotós (< *mrotós), mortós“mortal” | marati, máratē, mriyátē “(he) dies”, mṛtá-“dead”, márta-, mortal | Av merə- “to die”, miryeite“dies”; OPersmartiya-“man” | OCSmĭrǫ, mrěti “to die” | Lithmiŕštu (miŕti) “to die”, merdėti“to die slowly” | OIr marb, Wmarw “dead” < *mr̥-wós | meṙanim “I die”, mard “human” | mert “died” | ||
| *perd- “fart” | fart (< OEfeortan) | pérdomai | párdate “(s/he) farts” | Russian perdétь“to fart” |
Mental functions and states
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *k̂leu-(s)- “to hear” | listen (< OEhlystan), loud (< OE hlūd) | hliuma“hearing, ears (in pl.)” | clueō (cluēre)“to be named” | ékluon “I heard” | śr̥ṇóti “(he) hears” < *k̂l̥-neu- | Av surunaoiti“(he) hears” < *k̂lu-n- | OCS slyšati“to hear” | OPrusklausytun“to hear”, Lithklausyti “to listen” | OIr ro-clui-nethar“hears”; Wclywed “to hear” | lsem “I hear” | Old Toskkluaj(standard quaj) “to call, to name” < *k̂lu(H)-eH₁- | A klyoṣ-, B klyauṣ- “to hear” | |
| *weid- “to see, find; to know” | wit (OE wit“intelligence”, witan “to know” < PIE perfect tense) | witan “to know” | videō (vidēre)“to see” | é(w)ide “he saw”perf. oĩda “I know (lit. I have seen)” | vindáti “(he) finds”, ávidat “found”vetti, vēdate, vidáti “(he) knows”, perf. véda “I know” | Av vī̆δaiti, vī̆nasti “(he) finds” | OCS viždǫ (viděti) “to see” | OPruswidatun “to see”, Lithveidas “face” | W gweld “to see” | gtanem “I find” | |||
| *woid- “to know” | Av perf. vaēδa“I know”, vīdarǝ “they know” | OCS věmĭ (věděti) “to know” | OPruswaistun “to know”, Lithvaistas“medicine”, vyda “he sees, knows” | OIr find, Wgwn “(I) know” | gitem “I know” | B ūwe“learned” < PToch*wäwen- < *wid-wo- | |||||||
| *ĝénH₃-, *ĝnéH₃-sk̂-, *ĝn̥-né-H₃-“to recognize, know” | can (< OE cann“I know, he knows”), know(< OE cnāwan < *ĝnēH₃-yo-nom), Scot ken “to know” (< OEcennan “to cause to know” < PGerm *kann-jan) | kunnan “to know” < *ĝn̥-n-H₃-onom, kann “I know” | (g)nōscō ((g)nōscere)“to recognize”, nōvī “I know” | gignṓskō(aorist égnōn) “I recognize” | jānā́mi “I know” < *janā́mi < *ĝn̥-nH₃-mi | Av zanā-ṯ, zanąn < *ĝn̥-ne-H₃-ti; OPers a-dānā(impf.) “he knew” < *ĝn̥-ne-H₃-mi, xšnāsātiy(subj.) “he should know” < *ĝneH₃-sk̂e-eti | OCS znajǫ (znati) “to know” < *ĝneH₃-yoH₂ | OPruszinatun “to recognize, know”, Lithžinoti “to know” | OIr itar-gninim, asa-gninaim “I am wise”; Wadnabod “(I) know” | čanačʿem, aorist caneay “I recognize” | njoh “I know” < *ĝnēH₃-sk̂oH₂ | A knā-, e.g. knānmaṃ“knowing” < *ĝneH₃-, kñas-äṣt“you have become acquainted” < *ĝnēH₃-s- | |
| *n̥- + *ĝneH₃-tos “not” + “to know” | uncouth (< OEuncūþ“unknown, strange”) | unkunþs“unknown” | ignōtus, ignōrāntem“unknown, ignorant” | agnṓs (agnõtos)“unknown” < *n̥- + *ĝnéH₃-ts | ajñāta- “unknown” | OPrusnezinatun“not to know”, Lithnežinoti ” not to know” | OIr ingnad“foreign” | an-can-awtʿ“ignorant, unknown” | A ā-knats, B a-knātsa“ignorant” | ||||
| *men- “to think” | mind (< OE(ġe)mynd“memory” < *mn̥t-ís); OEmunan “to think” | munan “to think”; muns(pl. muneis) “thought” < *mn̥-is; gamunds (gamundáis)“remembrance” < *ko(m)-mn̥t-ís | meminī “I remember”; mēns (mentis)“mind” < *mn̥t-is | mémona “I think of”; maínomai “I go mad” | mányate “(he) thinks”; mántra-“thought, the instrument of thought” | Av mainyeite“(he) thinks”; OPersmainyāhay “I think” | OCS mĭněti“to mean” | OPrusmintun “to guess”, minisna“memory”, mints“riddle”, mentitun “to lie”, Lithmintis ” thought”, minti “to guess”, minėti “to mention” | OIr do-moiniur “I believe, I mean” | mendoj “I think” | A mnu“thought”; B mañu“demand (n.)” | memmāi“says” | |
| *sekʷ- “to see, to say” | see (< OEsēon); say (< OE sec̣gan < PGerm*sag(w)jan < *sokʷéyonom) | saíƕan “to see”; OHGsagen “say” < *sokʷē- | īnseque“declare!” | énnepe “tell!” | śacate “(he) says” | OCS sočiti“to announce” | Lith sakyti“to say”, sekti “to tell a story, to follow” | OIr insce “I talk”; OIrrosc “eye” < *pro-skʷo-; OWhepp “(he) said” | sheh “(he) sees” | A ṣotre, B ṣotri “sign” | sakuwāi-“to see” | ||
| *wekʷ- “to say” | OE wōma“noise” < *wōkʷ-mō(n) | OHGgiwahanen“mention” < PGerm*gawahnjan(denom. built on *wokʷ-no-) | vocō (vocāre)“to call”, vōx (vōcis)“voice” | eĩpon (aor.) “spoke” < *e-we-ikʷ-om < *e-we-ukʷ-om, (w)épos“word” | vákti, vívakti “(he) says”, vāk “voice”, vácas- “word” | Av vač-“speak, say”, vāxš “voice”, vačah “word” | OCS vikǫti“to call, to scream” | OPrusenwackēmai“we call” | OIr foccul“word”, Wgwaethl“fight” < * wokʷ-tlo-m | gočem “I call” | A wak, B wek “voice” | ḫuek-, ḫuk- to swear to” | |
| *bʰeh₂- “to speak, say” | ban (< PGmc*bannaną “to proclaim, order, summon”) | fāma “fame”; fās “divine law; will of god, destiny”; for (fārī) “I speak, talk, say”; fātus “word, saying; oracle, prophecy; fate”; fateor (fatērī, fassus sum)“I confess, admit, acknowledge”; fābula“discourse, narrative; tale, fable”; Sp hablar, Ptfalar “to speak” |
phōnḗ “voice”; phḗmē“prophetic voice; rumor; reputation”; phēmí “I speak, say”; phásis“utterance, statement, expression” | bhā́ṣā “speech, language”; bhā́ṣati “(s/he) speaks” | bajka“fable”; OCS balii“physician, (healer, enchanter)” | ||||||||
| *prek̂-, *pr̥-sk̂- < *pr̥k̂-sk̂- “to ask” | Scot frain “to ask” (< OEfreġnan) | fraíhnan “to ask”; OHGforscōn “to ask, to research” | precor (precārī) “to pray”, poscō (poscere) “to demand, ask” | pr̥ccháti “(he) asks” | Av pǝrǝsaiti “(he) asks, desires” < *pr̥-sk̂-; OPersaor.? aparsam “(he) asked” | OCS prositi“to pray” | OPrusprasitun “to ask”, Lithprašyti “to ask” | OIr imm-chom-arc“mutual questions, greetings”; NIr arco, Warchaf “I ask” | harcʿanem“I ask” | A prak-, B prek- “to ask” | |||
| *bʰeyh₂- “to fear, be afraid” | bive, bever “to shake, tremble” (< OE bifian) | foedus “foul, filthy, unseemly; vile” | bháyate “(s/he) is afraid”; bhī, bhīti, bhayá-“fear” |
OCS bojati“to fear, be afraid” | |||||||||
| *H₁neH₃mn̥ or *H₁nomn̥-“name” | name (< OEnama) | namō (acc. pl. namna) “name” | nōmen“name” | ónoma “name” | nā́ma(n)(instrumental sg. nā́mnā) “name” | Av nāma“name” | OCS imę“name” < Proto-Slavic*inmen < *n̥men | OPrusemnes, emmens“name” < *enmen- | OIr ainmm n-, OW anu“name” | anun“name” | Gheg emën, Tosk emër“name” < *enmen- | A ñem, B ñom“name” | lāman-“name” |
Natural features
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *H₂ster- “star” | star (< OEsteorra) | staírnō“star” | stēlla“star” | astḗr “star” | stṛ inst. pl. stŕ̥bhis, nom. pl. tāra-, fem. nom. sg. tarā “star” | Av acc.stā̆rǝm(ablauting)“star” | MIr ser, Wseren, Bretonsterenn“star”; CelticSirona (< *Tsirona) “astral”, “stellar” | astł “star”; Astłik“deity of love, fertility and skylight” | pl. A śreñ, B ściriñ“stars” | ḫasterza“star” | |||
| *dyēus, déiwos“sky, day, god” | Tues-day (< OE Tīwes-dæġlit. “day of Tīw”) | ON tīvar“gods”, Týr“Tīw” (the war god) | Iuppiter (Iovis), Old LatinDiū-piter (Diovis)“Jupiter”; diēs “day”, deus, dīvus“god” | Zdeús (Di(w)ós)“Zeus” | d(i)yāús (divás, dyōs)“heaven”, dēvás “god”, devī́“goddess” | Av daēva-“demon” | (OCS dĭnĭ (dĭne) “day” < *din-is), Ukr. dyvoand Russ. divo“miracle” | OPrus deina“day”, deiws“god”, Lithdiena “day”, dievas “god” | OIr dīe, Wdydd “day”; OIr dia (dē), OWduiu- “God” | tiw (tuənǰean)“day” | (gdhinj “I make day”(? mache Tag) < *-di-n-yoH₂) | Šiuš “Hittitesky- or sun-god” | |
| *seH₂wol-, *sH₂un-“sun” | sun (< OEsunne) | sauil, sunnō“sun” | sōl “sun” | Homerichēélios “sun” < *sāwélios;Helios “deity of the sun” | súvar (súra-) “sun, light, heavens”, sūra-, sūrya“sun” | Av hvarǝ (hūrō) “sun, light, heavens”, Hvare-khshaeta“deity of the radiant sun” | OCSslĭnŭce“sun” < *sulnika-, Russ. po-solon’“sunwise” | OPrus sauli“sun”, sawaiti“week”, Lithsaulė “sun”, savaitė“week” | OIr sūil“eye”; Whaul “sun” | ylli “star” < *sūlo- or *sūli- | |||
| *meH₁ns- “moon, month” | moon (< OEmōna), month(< OE mōnaþ) | mēna“moon”, mēnoþs“month” | mēnsis“month” | Att mḗn, Ionmeis, Dormḗs “month”, mḗnē “moon” | mā́s “moon”; mā́sa– “month” | Av mā̊ (mā̊ŋhō)“moon”; NPers māh“moon, month” | OCSměsęcĭ“moon, month” < *mēs-n̥-ko- | OPrus miniks“moon”, mins“month”, Lithmėnulis“moon”, mėnesis“month” | OIr mī (mīs)“month” < *mēns;; Wmis“month” | amis“month” | muai“month” | A mañ B meñe“month”; A mañ ñkätB meṃ“moon” | |
| *dʰeĝʰom- “earth” | humus“earth” | kʰtʰṓn (kʰtʰonós)“earth”, kʰamaí “on the earth” | kṣā́s (acc. kṣā́m, gen. jmá-) “earth” | Av zā̊ (acc. ząm, gen. zǝmō) “earth”; Kurdish zevî“farmland”, NPers zamin“ground, soil”, zamindar“land owner” | OCS zemĭ, zemlja“earth”; RussChernozem“black soil” | OPrus zemê“earth”, semmai “on the earth” (adverb); Lithžemė ” earth” | OIr dū“place”; Welsh dyn“man” | dhe “earth” | A tkaṃ (tkanis), B keṃ“earth” | tēkan (tagnās)“earth” | |||
| *wódr̥ (udéns) pl. *wédōr (udnés)“water” | water (< OEwæter) | watō (watins)“water” | Umbrianutur“water”, Latin unda“wave” | húdōr (húdatos)“water”; Hydra (litt.) “water-animal” | udaká- (loc. udán(i), pl. udá), udra“water”; samudra“ocean” (litt. “gathering of waters”) | Av aoδa-“spring”, vaiδi-“stream” | OCS voda“water”, Russ. vedro“bucket”; Russ vódka“little water” | OPrus undan“water”, Lithvanduo“water” | OIr u(i)sce“water” < *udeskyo-; Eng. Whisky < uisce beatha“water of life” | get “river” | ujë “water” | A wär, B war“water” | wātar (wetenas)“water” |
| *doru, *dreu-“wood, tree” | tree (< OEtrēo) | triu “tree, wood” | dóru, drûs“tree, wood” | dā́ru, drṓs, drú- “tree, wood” | Av dāru-“tree, wood” | OCS drěvo“tree” | OPrus drawê“hole in a tree, hollow tree”, Lith drevė“hole in a tree”, dirva“soil” | OIr daur“oak”, Wderwen“oak” | tram“firm” | dru “tree” | AB or“wood” | taru “tree” | |
| *H₂weH₁n̥to-“wind”, *H₂weH₁-“to blow” | wind (< OEwind); OEwāwan “to blow” | winds“wind”; waian “to blow” | ventus“wind” | áenta (acc.) “wind”, áēsi “(he) blows” | vā́ta- (vānt-)“wind”, vāti “(he) blows”, Vāyu “lord of winds”; nir·vāṇa-“blow-out, extinction” | Av vātō“wind”, vāiti “(he) blows”, Vayu-Vata “a pair of deities: Vayu/Wind and Vata/Air” | OCS vějǫ (vějetŭ) “to blow” | OPrus witra“wind”; Lithvėjas “wind”, vėtra “heavy wind”, Vėjopatis“god of winds” | W gwynt“wind” | A want, B yente“wind” | ḫūwanz“wind” | ||
| *sneigʷʰ- “to snow” | snow (< OEsnāw < *snoigʷhos, snīwan “to snow” < *sneigʷhonom) | snáiws“snow” | nix (nivis)“snow”, ninguō (ninguere)“to snow” | nípʰa (acc.) “snow”, neípʰei “it snows” | sneha-“snow” | Av snaēža-“to snow”; Shughni žǝnij“snow” < *snaiga- | OCS sněgŭ“snow” | OPrus snaigs“snow”, Lithsnigti “to snow” | OIrsnecht(a)e, W nyf“snow”; OIrsnigid “it rains” | ||||
| *h₁n̥gʷnís “fire” < *h₁engʷ- “to burn” ; *h₁óngʷl̥ “charcoal” |
ignis “fire” | agní “fire”; áṅgāra“charcoal” |
OCS ognĭ“fire”; ǫglĭ “coal” |
||||||||||
| *péH₂wr̥, pH₂unés“bonfire” | fire (< OE fȳr< *fuïr) | fōn (funins)“fire”; OHGfuïr(two syllables) < *puwéri | Umbrianpir “fire” < *pūr, acc. purom-e“into the fire” < *pur- | pũr (purós)“fire” | pāru (pēru)“sun, fire” | NPers fer“oven, furnace” | Czech pýř“glowing ash” | OPrus pannu“fire” | hur “fire” | A por, B puwar, puwār, pwār “fire” | paḫḫur“fire” | ||
| *dʰuh₂mós“smoke” < *dʰewh₂-“to smoke” | fūmus“smoke” | dhūmá-“smoke; mist, fog” | OCS dymŭ“smoke” | ||||||||||
| *gʷʰerm- “warm” | ?warm (< OEwearm); OEġierwan “to prepare, cook” < PGerm*garwjan | ?warmjan“to warm” | formus“warm” | tʰermós“warm” | gʰarmá-“heat” | Av garǝma-“hot, heat”; OPersGarma-pada-, name of the fourth month, corresponding to June/July, orig. (?) “entrance of the heat” | Russ. žar“heat”, goret’ “to burn” < *gʷʰer | OPrus garmê“heat, glowing”, Lithžarijos“cinders”, žėrėti “to glow” | OIr gorn“fire” < *gʷʰor-nos | ǰerm“warm” | Ghegzjarm “fire, heat” | A śärme“heat (of summer)” | |
| *gel- “to be cold, to freeze” | cold (< OEceald) | kalds “cold (of the weather)” | gelus“ice”, gelidus“icy” | gelandros | MBulggoloti “ice” | Lith gelmenis, gelumà “great cold” | |||||||
| *leuk- “light, brightness” | light (< OElēoht) | liuhaþ (liuhadis)“light” | lūceō (lūcēre)“to shine”, lūx “light” | leukós“bright, shining, white” | rócate “(he) shines”, roká- “light”, loka- “world, place” | Av raočant-“shining”, raočah “light”; OPers raučah“light” | OCS luča“ray, flash” < *loukyā | OPrus lauk“bright”, lauksna“star”, laukas“field”, Lithlaukas“outside, field” | OIr luchair“shine”; Wllachar“bright”, llug“shimmer” | loys“light” | AB lyuk/luk-“to shine” | luk(k)- “to shine” | |
| *bʰel- “to shine” | balefire (< OEbǣlfȳr) | ON bál“fire” | fulgeō “I flash, glitter”; flagrō “I burn, blaze”; flamma“flame, fire” |
phlégō “I scorch, kindle”; phlégma“flame, inflammation”; phalós“white” |
bhrája- “fire, shining”; bhāla-“splendor” |
OCS bělŭ“white” | Lith baltas, Latv balts“fair, white” | ||||||
| *temH- “(to be) dark” *témHos“darkness” |
OHGdemar“twilight” | tenebrae“darkness” (< *temebrai< *temasro) | támas“darkness, gloom”, támisrā“dark night” | Av taΘra“darkness”, təmah | OCS tĭmĭnŭ“darkness”, tĭma’, Rustemnotá“darkness” | Lith tamsa“dark, darkness”, tiḿsras “a darker shade of red”; Latvtumšs, timšs“dark”, tùmsa“darkness” | OIr temel“darkness” (< PCel*temeslos); OW timuil“dark, darkness” | ||||||
| *nébʰ-os “cloud; mist” | OE nifol “dark “ | ONNiflheimr“home of mists” | nebula“fog, cloud” | népʰos“cloud”; nepʰélē“mass of clouds; name of a nymph” | nábʰas“mist; sky, cloud”; nábʰāsa“celestial, heavenly; appearing in the sky” | nabah-“heavens” (litt. “nimbuses, clouds”) | OCS nebo“heaven, sky”; Polniebo “sky”; Cz nebesa“skies”; RusНебеса“heaven” | Lith debesis“cloud” | OIr nem“sky”; OBretnem, MBretneff “sky” | nēpiš- “sky, heaven”; CLuwtappaš-“heaven”; HierLuwtipas-“heaven” | |||
| *srew-, *srew-mo, *sru-to “to flow, stream” (in river names) | stream (< OEstrēam) | ONstraumr “a stream” | rheûma“flow” | srutá-“flow”, srava“a flow of, a waterfall” (< *srówos) | YAv θraotah-“stream” (< OIA srótas-); OPer rautaʰ-“river” | OCS struja“stream”, o-strovŭ“island”; Russtrumenı“brook”; Polstrumień“brook, river” | Lith sraumuõ“brook, stream”; Latvstrāva“current”; Lith sraujà, Latv strauja“stream”;Lith sraũtas“flow, torrent” | OIrsruaimm, Irsruth“stream, river”; MWffrwd“brook, stream”; OBret frut“stream” | OArm aṙu“brook; canal” (< srutis-) | rrymë“stream, current; flow (of water)” | |||
| *dʰenh₂- “to set in motion, to flow”; *déh₂nu “river goddess” |
fōns < PItal*ðonts“spring, fountain; fresh water; source” | dhánvati “it runs, flows, causes to run or flow”; dhána-“competition, contest; prize”; dā́nu “fluid, drop, dew” |
Dnieper < OOss dānu apara “the far river” | Danube < PCelt*Dānowyos | |||||||||
| *mori- “lake?, sea?” | OE mere“lake” | marei “sea” | mare“sea” | OCS morje“sea” | Lith mårè“sea” | OIr muir“sea” |
Directions
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *per- “through, across, beyond” | far (< OEfeorr) | faírra “far”; faír-“around; (intensifier)” | per“through” | perí, pér“forward” | pári“forward” | Av pairi, OPerspariy“forward” | OCS prě-“forward” | OPrus pro-, pra- “trough, across”, Latvian pāri“across”, Lith per“across”, pra- “to start and finish doing something”, pro-“through” | OIr ir-, Wer“forward” | heṙu “far” | për, pej, pe“forward” | parā, Lycianpri“forth” | |
| *upér(i) “over, above” | over (< OE ofer) | ufar “over, above, beyond” | super“over” (influenced by sub“under”) | hupér“over” | upári “over, above, beyond” | Av ‘upairi, OPers”over, above, beyond” | OCS po“upon, at” | OPrusuppin“cloud”, | OIr for, Wgor, gwar“over, on” | ver “up” | i ver “up” | epër“over, above” | |
| *H₂ents“forehead”, *H₂entí, *H₂entá“in front of” | and (< OEand) | and “along, throughout, towards, in, on, among”; OHG enti“previously” < PGerm*andiaz | ante “in front of” | antí“instead of” | anti“opposite to it” | Kurdish ênî“front, forehead” | Lith añt “on” antai “there” | OIr étan“forehead” < *antono- | ənd“instead of” | A ānt, B ānte“surface, forehead” | ḫānz, ḫanti“in front” | ||
| *en “in” | in (< OEin) | in “in, into, towards” | in “in” | en “in” | án-īka-“face” < ?*eni-Hkʷ | Av ainika“face” < ?*eni-Hkʷ | OCS on-, vŭn-, vŭ“in” | OPrus en“in”, Lith į“in” | OIr in-“in”; W yn“in” | i “in” | inj “until” | AB y-, yn-, B in-“in” | an-dan“inside” |
| *apó “away” | of, off (< OE of) | af “from, of, by” (ab-u “from …?”) | ab “away” | apó “from” | ápa “away” | Av apa, OPers apa“away” | OCS ot, “from, apart of” | Lith apačià“bottom” < *apotyā | prapë“back” < *per-apë | āpa“behind, back” (or ? < *epi) | |||
| *deḱs- “the right (side)” | Gothictaihswa“right side” | dexter | dexiós; Myc de-ki-si-wo | dákṣina“right, south” | Av dašina“right, south”; MPer dašn“right hand, right side” | OCSdesnŭ“right (side)” | Lith dẽšinas | GaulDexsiva(Dexsiua) | |||||
| *bʰudʰmḗn“bottom” | butt (< OE bytt); bottom, botham(< OEbodan, botm) |
fundus“bottom, ground, foundation; farm, estate” | puthmḗn“bottom (cup, jar, sea)” | budhná“bottom, ground, base, depth” |
Basic adjectives
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *medʰyo- “mid, middle” | mid, middle(< OE mid, middel) | midjis“middle” | medius“middle” | més(s)os“middle” | mádʰya-“middle” | Avmaiδya-“middle” | OCSmeždu“between”, Russ. meža“boundary” | OPrusmeddin“forest” (between villages), Lith medis“tree” | OIr mid-“middle” < *medʰu-; MWmei- “middle” < *medʰyo- | mēǰ“middle” | mes, mjet “in between, middle” | ||
| *meĝ- “big” | much (< OEmyc̣el “big, many”) | mikils “big” | magnus “big” | mégas“big” | máha-, mahā́nt-“big” | Avmazant-“big” | OPrus mazs“smaller”, Lith mažas“small” | OIr mochtae, MIr mag-, maige “big” | mec “big” | madh“big” | A mak, B makā “much” | mekkis“big” | |
| *dlongʰos, *dl̥h₁gʰós “long”; | long (< OElong, lang); | tulgus“holding long; firm, steadfast”; | longus “long” | dolikhós“long, protracted”; | dīrghá-“long” | OCS dlĭgŭ“long”; | |||||||
| *gʷerH₂- “heavy” | kaúrus“heavy” | grāvis “heavy” | barús“heavy” | gurú-“heavy” | Av gouru-“heavy-“, NPersgirān“heavy” < *grāna-(influenced by *frāna“full”) | OCSgromada“big size, huge”, gruz“a load, something heavy”, | OPrusgarrin“tree”, Lithgeras“good” | MIr bair“heavy (?)”, Wbryw “strong” | zor“brute force; great effort” | A kra-marts“heavy (?)”, B krā-mär“burden” < *gʷroH₂-mVr- | |||
| *H₁le(n)gʷʰ-, *H₁ln̥gʷʰ-ro-, *H₁ln̥gʷʰ-u-“light (in weight)” | light (< OElēoht) | leihts “light” < *H₁lengʷʰ-tos; OHG lungar“fast” < *H₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros | levis “light” < *H₁legʷʰ-us | elakʷʰús“small” < *H₁ln̥gʷʰ-us, elapʰrós“light, quick” < *H₁ln̥gʷʰ-ros | lagʰú-, ragʰú-“quick, light, small” | Av ragu-, fem. rǝvī“fast”, superl. rǝnjišta-“fastest” | OCSlŭgŭkŭ“light” | OPruslangus“light”, langsta“window”, lankewingis“flexible”, linktwei “to bend”, Lithlengvas“light”, lankstus“flexible”, langas“window”, lenkti “to bend” | OIr laigiu, laugu, MW llei“smaller” | lehtë“light-weight” | B lankutse“light” | ||
| *H₁reudʰ-, *H₁roudʰ-os, *H₁rudʰ-rós“red” | red (< OErēad < *H₁roudʰ-os) | rauþs (raudis) “red” < *H₁roudʰ-os | ruber “red” < *H₁rudʰ-rós; Umb rufru“red” | Myc e-ru-ta-ra, e-ru-to-ro;erutʰrós“red” < *H₁rudʰ-rós; Erytheia“name of a nymph” (litt. “the red one”); | rudʰirá-“red” < *H₁rudʰ-rósmixed with *H₁rudʰ-i-; rṓhita-“red”; lōhá-“reddish” < *H₁roudʰ-os | Avraoiδita-“red” | OCS rudŭ“red”; Czech rudá“red”; Polrudy “red-haired” | Lithraũdonas“red”, rudas“brown” | OIr rúad, Wrhudd “red”, rhwd“rust”; GaulRoud- (in personal names) | A rtär, B ratre “red” < *H₁rudʰ-rós | |||
| *gʰel-, ǵʰelH₃- “green, yellow” | gold; yellow(< OEgeolu); yolk(< OEġeoloca) | gulþ “gold” | helvus“honey-yellow”; gilvus “pale yellow (of horses)” | kʰlōrós“pale green” | Skthíraņya-“gold”; hári-“yellow” | Avzaranyam“gold”; zári“yellow” | OCS zelenĭ“green”; Rus zóloto“gold”; | Latv zèlts“gold”; Lithgeltas“yellow”; žel̃vas“golden”; žalias“green” | MWel gell“yellow” | ||||
| *h₂erǵ- “shining, bright”*h₂r̥ǵn̥tóm “white metal (silver)” | argentum“silver (metal)”; Falarcentelom “a small silver coin” | Myc a-ku-ro,árguros“silver”; argós“white, bright” | Skt rajatá– “silver; silver-coloured”; árjuna-“white, clear, silvery” | Avərəzatəm“silver” | Celtibarkato“silver “; Ir Airget“silver (title of Nuada)”; OIrargat, OWargant “silver” | arcat‘“silver” | A ārkyant“silver”; A ārki-, B ārkwi “white” | ḫarkiš“white, bright” | |||||
| *alyos, *anyos “other”; *anteros “second” | else (< OEelles); other(< OE ōþer) | aljis, anþar“other” | alius “other” | állos“other” | anyá-, ántara-“other” | Av anya-, ainya-, OPersaniya-“other”; Ossetianändär“other”; East Iranian hal-ci“whoever” | Old Sorbianwutory“other” < PSlav*ǫtorŭ | OPrusantars“second”, Lith antras“second” | OIr aile, W ail“other” | ayl “other” | A ālya-kə, B alye-kə“another” | Lydianaλa-“other” | |
| *néwo- “new” | new (< OEnīwe) | niujis “new” | novus “new” | né(w)os“new” | náva-“new” | Av nava-“new” | OCS novŭ“new” | OPrusnawas“new”, Lithnaujas“new” | OIr nūë, Wnewydd “new” | nor “new” < *nowero- | A ñu, B ñune “new” | newa-“new” | |
| *H₂yuHn̥- “young” | young (< OE ġeong < *H₂yuHn̥k̂ós) | juggs“young” | juvenis“young” | yúvan- (yū́nas)“young” | Av yvan-, yavan- (yūnō)“youth, young man” | OCS junŭ“young” | Lith Jaunas“young” | OIr ōac“young”, Wieuanc“young” < *H₂yuHn̥k̂ós | |||||
| *sen- “old” | sineigs “old (person)” | senex “old” | hénos“former, from a former period” | sánas “old” | Av hana-“old” | OCS sedyi“grey-headed” | OPrussentwei “to get old”, Lithsenas “old” | OIr sen “old”, Old Welsh hen“old” | hin “old” | ||||
| *nogʷ- “naked” | naked (< OE nacod“naked”) | naqaþs“naked” | nudus “naked” | gumnós“naked” | nagnás“naked” | NPers loxt“naked” | OCS nagŭ“naked” | OPrus nags“naked”, Lithnuogas“naked” | OIr nocht“naked”; Wnoeth “naked, bare” | nekumant-“naked, bare” | |||
| *bʰosós “bare, barefoot” | bare (< OEbær) | OCS bosŭ“barefooted, unshod” | |||||||||||
| *n̥mr̥tós “immortal” | ámbrotos“immortal, divine” | amṛ́ta-“immortal” | |||||||||||
| *h₂eḱ- “sharp” | edge (< OEeċġ) | aceō (acēre) “I am sour”; acidus “sour”; acētum“vinegar”; acus “needle, pin”; astus “craft, guile”, astūtus“shrewd, astute” |
akmé“point, edge”; oxús“sharp, pointed; quick; clever” | Persian āčār“pickle, marinade” | OCS ostĭnŭ“sharp point” | ||||||||
| *bel- “strong” | dēbilis“feeble, weak” | βελτίων“better” | bála-“force, strength, power” | Russ bolʹšój “big, large, great” |
Construction, fabrication
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₂éyos “copper, bronze” | ore (< OE ār) | aes“copper, bronze, brass; money, fee” | áyas“metal, iron” | ||||||||||
| *dʰwer- “door, doorway, gate” | door (< OEdor, duru) | daúr, daúrō“door” | forēs (pl.) “door” | tʰurā “door” | dvā́r, dvā́ras(pl.) “door” | Av dvarǝm(acc.) “gate, court”; OPersduvarayā “at the gate” NPers dar“door” | OCS dvĭri“door” | OPrusdwarris“gate, goal”,dwars“estate”, Lith durys“door”, dvaras“estate”, vartai“gate”, Latgdurovys“door”, vuorti“gate” | OIr dorus“door” < Proto-Celtic*dworestu-, W dôr“door” < *dʰureH₂ | duṙn“door” | derë “door” | B twere“doors” | an-durza“within” |
| h₂(e)nh₂t-“doorpost” | antae“anteroom” | ā́tā“doorpost” | |||||||||||
| *domo-, *domu-“house”, “home” | timber (< OEtimber“house, building material”) | timrjan “to build, erect” | domus (domūs)“house” | dómos “house” | dámas“house” | Av dąm, dąmi“in the house”; dǝmā̆na-, nmāna-“house” < *dm-ā̆na- | OCS domŭ“house” | OPrusdimstis“porch”,Lith dimstis“entryway” | MIr dom-liacc “house of stones” | tun“house” | dhomë“room” | ?A tem-, B tam- “be born” | |
| *gʰerdʰ-, *gʰordʰ-os-“enclosure, fence” | yard (< OEġeard“enclosure”); garden (< AngNorgardin < Frank*gardo) | gards “yard, court”; ONgarðr “fence, enclosed space” | hortus“garden” | kʰórtos “feeding place for animals” | gṛhá“house” | Av gərəδa“daeva cave” | OCS gradŭ“fortification; city” | Latv gãrds; Lith gar̃das“fold, pen” | OIr gort“standing crop”, Wgarth “cliff; enclosure” | OArmgerdastan“the body of servants and captives; estate” (either a borrowing from Iranian or inherited) | gardh“fence, enclosure, barricade” | ||
| *kʷekʷlo- “wheel” | wheel (< OEhwēol, hweogol < PGerm*hweg(w)ulaz< *kʷekʷlós) | ON hjōl, hvēl “wheel” < PGerm*hweh(w)ulaz< *kʷékʷlos | kúklos “circle”, (pl.) “wheels” | cakrá-“wheel” | Av čaxra-“wheel” | OCS kolo“wheel” | OPruskellin“wheel”, Lith kaklas“neck” | W cylch“circle” | A kukäl, B kokale“wagon” | kugullas“donut” | |||
| *Hrót-h₂-os “wheel”, “wagon” | OHG Rad“wheel” | rota“wheel”, “wagon” | rátha“chariot, car” | Av raθa“wagon”, “chariot” | Lith rãtai“wagon” (pl.), rãtas“wheel” (sg.) | OIr roth“wheel”, “circle” | rreth “ring, hoop, tyre (for carriages)” (< *Hróth₂ikos) | ||||||
| *néh₂us “vessel, boat” | OE nōwend“shipmaster, sailor” | ON naust“boathouse”; OIc nōr“ship” | nāvis“ship” | naûs “ship”;Myc na-u-do-mo“shipbuilders” | naú, nāva“ship” | Pers nâv“boat, ship” (archaic) | OIr nó, nau “boat” | OArmnaw “ship, boat” | |||||
| *h₂wĺ̥h₁neh₂ “wool” | wool (< OEwull) | wulla “wool” | lāna“wool” | lênos “wool, fleece (pl.)”, Dor lânos | ū́rṇā“wool, woolen thread” | Av varənā“wool” | OCS vlĭna“wool”, OESlavvŭlna“wool” | Latv vil̃na, Lith vìlna“wool”, OPruswilna “skirt (made of wool)” | OIr olann, MBretgloan, glan, OWgulan“wool” | OArmgełmn“fleece, wool” | ḫulanaš “wool” | ||
| *s(y)uH- “to sew” | sew (< OEsēowan) | siujan “to sew” | suō (suere) “to sew”; sūtūra“thread, suture” | humḗn “sinew” | sī́vyati “(he) sews”, syūtá-“sewn”; sū́tra-“thread, string” | OCS šijǫ (šiti) “to sew” | OPrusšutun “to sew”, Lithsiūti “to sew”, Latgšyut “to sew” | sum(m)anza(n), šuel (?), šuil (?)“thread” | |||||
| *teks- “to fashion, construct” | OE þeox“spear” | OHG dehsa, dehsala“hatchet” | texō (texere)“to weave” | téktōn “carpenter”, tíktō “I give birth” | takṣati, tā́ṣṭi “(he) fashions” | Av tašaiti “(he) cuts out, manufactures”; OPers us-tašanā“stairway” < “*construction”; MPers tāšīδan“to do carpentry” | OCS tešǫ (tesati) “to hew”, | OPrustesatun “to hew”, Lithtašyti “to hew” | OIr tāl“axe” < *tōkslo- | takkeszi “puts together” | |||
| *webʰ- “to weave” | weave (< OEwefan), web(<P.Gmc. *wabjan) | OHG weban“to weave”; ON vefa | hupʰaínō “I weave” | ubʰnā́ti“ties together”; ūṛna-vābhi-“spider” (litt. “wool-weaver”) | Av ubdaēna-“made of cloth”; NPersbāfad “(he) weaves” | viti “weave” | Lith vyti “to twist” | W gwau“knit, weave” | venj “I weave” < *webʰnyō | A wpantär(them. pres.),B wāp- “to weave” | wēpta-“wove” | ||
| *werĝ- “to work” | work (< OEweorc, wyrc̣an) | waúrkjan “to work” | urgeō (urgēre)“to push, drive” | (w)érgon “work”, érdō, hrézdō “I work” < *wérĝ-yoH₂, *wréĝ-yoH₂ | varcas“activity” (? not in Pokorny) | Av varəza-“work, activity”, vərəzyeiti “(he) works”; NPers varz, barz “field work, husbandry” | vrǔšiti “to act, to do” | OPruswargs“bad, evil, malicious, vicious”, wargtwei“to torment oneself, to suffer”, Lithvargas “the state of going through bad/unlucky events” | MWgwreith“deed” < *wreĝ-tu- | gorc“work “ | rregj “to clean” | A wärk-, B wārk- “to shear” | |
| *wes- “to clothe, wear clothes” | wear (< OEwerian) | wasjan “to clothe” | vestis“clothing” | héstai “gets dressed” | váste “(he) gets dressed” | Av vaste, vaŋhaiti “(he) gets dressed” | veshch“thing, cloth”, veshchi“cloth items” Serbian veš“underwear” | OPruswesti“corset”, wesseli“wedding”, Lithvestuvės“wedding”, vesti “to lead” | W gwisg“clothing” | z-genum“I put on (clothes)” < *wes-nu- | vesh“dress” veshje“clothing” |
B wastsi, wästsi“clothing” | wassezzi “(he) clothes” |
Self-motion, rest
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *H₁es- “to be”, *H₁es-ti “is”, *H₁és-mi “am” Cf. Indo-European copula |
is (< OE is), am | ist “is” | sum (esse)“I am (to be)”; est “it is” | estí “is,”; Dorian Greek entí“(they) are” <- *H₁s-enti | ásti “is”; ásmi “am” | Av asti“is”; Persianhast “is” | OCS jestŭ“is” | OPrus ast“is”, ēst“almost”, Lith esti“is” | OIr is “is”; Old Welshhint “(they) are” <- *H₁s-enti | em “I am” | është “is” | B ste “is” | ēszi “is” |
| *bʰuH₂- “to become” Cf. Indo-European copula |
be (< OEbēon); OEbūan “to dwell” | bauan “to dwell” | fuī “I was” | pʰúomai “I become”, épʰū“became” | bʰávati“become, is”, ábʰūt“became, was” | Avbavaiti, OPersbavatiy “(he) becomes” | OCS byti“to become, be” | OPrusbutwei “to be”, Lithbūti “to be” | OIr buith“being”, Wbod “to be” | busanim“sprout up” | buj, bûj “I dwell, stay overnight” < *bunjō | ||
| *sed-, *si-zd-“to sit” | sit (< OEsittan < *sed-yo-nom) | sitan “to sit” | sedeō (sedēre)“to sit”, sīdō “I sit down” < *si-zd-oH₂ | hézdomai“I sit” < *sed-yo-, hizdō “I set” < *si-zd-oH₂ | sátsi “(he) sits”, aor. ásadat“sat”; sī́dati “(he) sits” < *si-zd-eti; Upaniṣadlit. “sit-down-beside” < upa: ‘by, beside’, ni: ‘down’, sad: ‘sit’ | Av ni-šaŋhasti “(he) sits down”, opt.hazdyā-t “(he) should sit”, hiδaiti “(he) sits” < *si-zd-eti; OPerscaus.niya-šād-ayam “I set” | OCSsěždǫ (sěděti)“to sit” | OPrussistwei “to sit down”, Lith sedėti“to be sitting”, sėstis “to sit down” | OIrsa(i)did“sits”; Brhezañ “to stop” | nstim “I sit” (< *ni-zdyō), hecanim(< *sed-s-an-yō) “I sit on, I ride” | shëtis “to walk” | ||
| *legʰ- “to lie down” | lie (< OElic̣gan) | ligan “to lie down” | lectus“bed” | lékʰomai “I lie down” | leṭyati “(he) lies down” | NPers ley“lie down” | OCS ležǫ (ležati) “to lie down” | OPruslaztwei “to lie down” | OIr laigid“lies down” | lagje “city quarter” | A läk- “to lie”, B lyśalyñe “(act of) lying down” | lagari “(he) lies down” | |
| *k̂ei- “to lie (down); bed, cozy, dear, familiar” | home (< OEhām “village, home” < *k̂oi-mos) | háims (háimáis)“village, town” < *k̂oi-mis | cīvis “city dweller, citizen” < *k̂ei-wis | keĩtai “lies” | śētē (older śáyē) “(he) lies”, śērē“they lie” | Av saēte “(he) lies”, sōire“they lie” | OCSsěmija“family” | OPrusseimi“family”, kaims“village”, Lith šeima“family”, kaimas“village” | OIr cóim, cóem, OW cum“dear” | sirem “I love” < *k̂eiro- | kitta, kittari“lies”; Luwianziyari “lies” | ||
| *steH₂- “to stand (i.e. be standing)” | stand (< OEstandan) | standan“to stand”; OHG stān, stēn “to stand” | stō (stāre)“to stand”, sistō (sistere)“to cause to stand” | Dorichístāmi “I stand” | sthā- / tíṣṭhati “(he) stands” | Av hištaiti“(he) stands”; OPersimpf. a-ištata “(he) stood” | OCS stajǫ (stati) “to stand up” | OPrusstalitwei“to stand”, Lithstovėti “to stand” | OIr tair-(ṡ)issiur“I stand”; W sefyll“to stand” | stanam “I build; gain” | mbështet, pshtet “I support” | B stäm-“to stand”, ste “is”, “stare” “(they) are” | istanta- “to stay, delay” |
| *H₁ei- “to go” | yede (< OEēode “went”) | iddja“went” | eō (īre) “to go” | eĩmi “I (will) go” | éti “(he) goes”, yánti “(they) go” | Av aēiti “(he) goes”, yeinti “(they) go”; OPersaitiy“goes” | OCS jiditi“to move away, to arrive”, jidene“coming” | OPruseitwei “to go”, Litheiti “to walk” | W wyf “I am”; OIrethaid“goes” < *it-āt- | iǰanem(aorist ēǰ) “I climb down” < *i-gh- | iki “to leave; flee” *H₁(e)i-K- | A yā “he went”, B yatsi “to go” < *yā- | īt “go!” |
| *gʷem- “to come” | come (< OEcuman) | qiman “to come”; OSaxcuman “to come (to people) “ | veniō (venīre) “to come” | baínō “I go” | gámati “(he) goes”, aor. ágan, gan “(he) went” | Av ǰamaiti“goes”; OAv inj.uz-ǰǝ̄n “(he) goes”, pl. gǝmǝn“they go” | OPrusgimtwei“to be born”, Lithgimti “to be born”, Latv dzimt“to bear (a son)” | ekn (< *h₁e-gʷem-t) “(he) came” | A käm-, kum-, B käm-, kam-, śem “to come” | Luwzammantis“newborn child” (?) | |||
| *sekʷ- “to follow” | OE sec̣g“follower, companion, man” | ON seggr“hero” | sequor (sequī) “to follow” | hépomai “I follow” | sácate “(he) follows” | Avhačaitē, hačaiti “(he) follows” | šagati “to walk, stride, step”; Russ šag“step” |
OPrussektwei“to shallow “, Lith sekti“to follow” | OIrsechithir“follows” | ||||
| *bʰegʷ- “to run, flee” | phobéō “I put to flight, terrify, alarm; threaten”; phóbos“fear, terror; fright, panic; flight, retreat” | bhājáyati “(s/he) causes to flee” | OCSběgati, běžati “to flee, run, escape”; | ||||||||||
| *bʰewg- “to flee” | fugiō “I flee”; fuga“flight, escape” | pheúgō “I flee”; phugḗ“flight, escape” |
Object motion
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *bʰer- “to carry” | bear (< OEberan); burden, burthen (< OE byrþen) |
baíran “to carry” | ferō (ferre)“to carry”; lucifer “light-bearing, light-bringing” | pʰerō “I carry”; khristóphoros“Christ-bearing” | bʰarati “(he) carries” | Av baraiti “(he) carries”; OPersbarantiy“they carry” NPersbordan “to carry” Kurdishbirin “to carry, to take” | OCS berǫ (bĭrati) “to carry” | Lith berti“to pour non liquid” | OIr biru “I carry”; Wberu “to flow” | berem “I carry” | bie “I carry” | ||
| *weĝʰ- “to convey” | weigh (< OEwegan“carry”); way(< OE weġ); wain“wagon” (< OE wæġn) | ga-wigan“to move, shake” | vehō (vehere) “to convey” | Pamphylianwekʰétō “he should bring”; Cypriotéwekse“brought there” | váhati “(he) drives” | Av vazaiti “(he) leads, carries” | OCS vezǫ (vesti) “to drive” | OPrusweztun “to ride”, Lithvežti “to drive” | OIr fēn, Wgwain(type of wagon) < *weĝʰ-no-; W arwain“to lead” | vjedh “I steal” | Hier Luwwa-zi/a-“drive” | ||
| *H₂eĝ- “to lead, drive” | ON aka “to drive” | agō (agere)“to drive, do” | ágō “I lead” | ájati “(he) drives” | Av azaiti “(he) drives” Kurdishajotin “to drive” | ehati “to drive” | OIr ad-aig“compels”; OW agit, hegit“goes” | acem “I lead” | A ak-, B āk- “go, lead” | ||||
| *h₂eḱs- “axis, axle” < *H₂eĝ- | OE eax | axis “axle” | ákṣa- “axle” | Russian osь “axis, axle” | |||||||||
| *dʰeH₁-, dʰH̥₁-“to place, put” | do (< OEdōn) | deds “deed” | faciō (facere) “to do” < *dʰH̥₁-k-yoH₂; con-ditus“built” (orig. “put together”), ab-ditus“removed” (orig. “put away”) < Proto-Italic *-θatos < *dʰH̥₁-tos | títʰēmi “I put” < *dʰí-dʰeH₁-mi | dádʰāti “(he) puts” < *dʰé-dʰeH₁-ti | Av daδāiti “(he) puts”; OPers impf.adadā “(he) established” | OCS děti“to lay” | OPrusditun “to put”, Lithdėti “to put” | Gaulishdede “he put (pt.)”; W dodi“to place, to put”;OIr-tarti “he gives” < Proto-Celtic *to-ro-ad-dīt < *-dʰeH₁-t | dnel “to put”; ed “he put (past)” | dhatë“place, location” < *dʰH̥₁-teH₂ | A tā-, täs-, tas-, B tes-“to lay” < *dʰeH₁-s- | dāi“puts” |
| *deH₃-, dʰH̥₃- “to give” | dō (dare) “to give”; dator “giver, donor”; dōnum “gift” |
dídōmi “I give” | dádāti “(he) gives”; dātṛ “giver, donor”; dānam “gift, giving” |
Av dadāiti “(he) gives”; OPers impv.dadātuv“let him give” NPersdãdan “to give” | OCS damĭ“I will give” | OPrusdatun “to give”, Lithduoti “to give” | OIr dān, W dawn“gift” | tam “I give” | dhashë “I gave” < *dH̥₃-sm̥ | dāi“takes” | |||
| *kap- “to grab” | have (< OEhabban), heave (< OEhebban) | haban “to have”, hafjan “to lift” | capiō (capere) “to take” | káptō “I snatch, swallow” | kapaṭī “two handfuls” | NPersčaspīdan, čapsīdan, cafsīdan“to grasp, seize” | Ukrainiankhapaty“to grab” | OPruskaps“grave”, Lith kapas“grave”, kapt“expression to indicate grabbing. | OIr cacht“female slave”, Wcaeth“slave, captive” < *kap-tos“taken” | kap “I grasp, grab”, kam“I have” | |||
| *gʰabʰ- “to seize, take” | give (< OEġiefan) | giban “to give” | habeō (habēre) “to have” | gábʰastis“forearm, hand” | OPers grab“to seize”; Kurdishgirtin “to take, to seize | Russ. xvatátʹ “to snatch, suffice” | OPrusgabtun “to catch”, Lithgauti ” to get” | OIr gaibid“takes”; Wgafael “to take hold, to grip” | |||||
| *gʷʰen- “to strike, kill” | bane (< OEbana“murderer”) | banja “blow, wound, ulcer” | dē-fendō (dēfendere)“to ward off, defend”, of-fendō (offendere)“to bump, offend” | tʰeínō “I kill” < *gʷʰen-yoH₂, épepʰnon “I killed” < redup.+ *gʷʰn-om | hánti “(he) strikes, kills” < *gʷʰen-ti, gʰnánti“they strike, kill”; vṛtra·han“Vṛtra-killer, a name of Indra” | Av ǰainti “(he) strikes, kills”, ni-γne (mid.) “I strike down”; OPers impf.ajanam “I struck down” | OCS ženǫ (gŭnati)“drive (animals to pasture)”, žĭnjǫ (žęti)“reap” | OPrusgintun “to defend”, Lith ginti ” to defend”, ganyti “to drive animals to pasture” | OIr gonim“I wound, kill”; Wgwanu “to stab” | ǰnem “I strike” < *gʷʰen-oH₂, ǰnǰem “I destroy” < *gʷʰen-yoH₂ | gjanj “I hunt” < *gʷʰen-yoH₂ | B käsk- “to scatter to destruction” < *gʷʰn̥-sk- | kuēnzi“kills” < *gʷʰen-ti |
| *bʰeyd- “to split, cleave” | bit (< OEbite);bite (< OE bitan); bait (< ONbeita) | ‘findō “I split”; fissus < fid·tus“split”; fissiō“splitting, fission” |
bhid-, bhinátti “(s/he) splits, breaks”; bhedati “(s/he) splits”; bhinná < bhid·ná“split, cloven” |
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| *der- “to tear, crack; split, separate” | tear (< OEteran); turd (< OEtord) |
*taurþs“destruction, a teardown” | dérō “to skin, flay”; dérma “skin, hide” |
dṛṇā́ti “(s/he) tears, rends, rips; splits open, bursts” | OCS dĭrati“to tear, flay” | ||||||||
| *bʰreg- “to break” | break (< OEbrecan); breech, breeches (< OE brēċ) |
frango “I break, shatter”; frāctus“broken”; fragilis“breakable” |
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| *h₃er- “to move, to stir; to rise, spring; quarrel, fight” | orior “I rise, get up”; oriēns“rising” > orient; origo “act, event or process of coming into existence; source” > origin |
órnūmi “I set upon, awaken, raise, excite, stir up”; oûros “fair wind”; éris “strife, quarrel; rivalry” |
ṛṇoti “to attack, rise”; ṛtí “quarrel, strife; attack” |
OCS ratĭ“war, battle” | |||||||||
| *h₃reyH- “to move, set in motion; flow, stream (of water); pour, rain; churn” | ride (< OErīdan); raid (< OErād); run (< OEiernan); -rith “small stream (found in surnames and placenames)”(< OE rīþ) |
rīvus“stream” > rival (lit. “using the same stream as another”), derive; irrīto “to irritate” |
riṇā́ti “to make flow, release”; rītí “motion, course; current; custom, rite”; rétas “flow, gush, current, stream; seed, sperm” |
OCS rinǫti“to push, shove” | Gau rēda“chariot”; Gaurēnos“river, waterway” > LatRhēnus > Rhine |
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| *leikʷ-, *li-ne-kʷ-“to leave behind” | OE lēon “to lend” | leiƕan “to lend” | linquō (linquere) “to leave behind” | leípō, limpánō“I leave behind” | riṇákti “(he) leaves behind”, 3rd. pl. riñcanti“they leave behind” | Av -irinaxti“(he) frees”; NPersrēxtan “to pour out” | OBulg otŭ-lěkŭ“something left over”, lišiti “to rob” < *leikʷ-s-, Ukrlyshyty “to leave behind” | OPruspalaistun“to leave behind”, Lith likti “to stay” | OIr lēicid“(he) leaves behind, releases” | lkʿanem “I leave behind” | Alb Lejleave | ||
| *h₁reh₁- “to row” | rudder (< OErōþor) | rēmus “oar” | erétēs “(in the plural) oars” | áritra-“propelling, driving” |
Time
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *dʰĝʰyés“yesterday” | yesterday(< OEġeostra) | gistra-“tomorrow (?)” | heri“yesterday” | kʰtʰés“yesterday” | hyás“yesterday” < *gʰyés | Av zyō, Old Persiandiya(ka)“yesterday” | OIr in-dē, W ddoe“yesterday” | dje“yesterday” | |||||
| *nokʷts (nekʷts)“night” | night (< OE neaht, niht < *nokʷtis) | nahts (nahts)“night” < *nokʷts | nox (noctis)“night” | núks (núktos)“night” | nák (instr. pl. náktīs) “night” | Proto-Iranian*náxts,Kurdishnixte “rainy, cloudy (lack of sunlight)” | OCS noštĭ“night” | OPrusnakts“night”, Lithnaktis“night” | OIr i-nnocht, OWhenoid “on this night” | natë“night” | A nktim“nightly”, B nekciye “in the evening” | nekuz(gen. sg.) “of evening” | |
| *wek(ʷ)speros“evening” | vesper“evening” | hésperos“of the evening; western” | OCS večerŭ“evening”; Rus ZoryaVechernyaya“deity of the evening star” | Latvvakars, Lithvãkaras“evening”; Vakarine“goddess of the evening star” | OIr ucher“evening” | OArmgišer“night; darkness” | |||||||
| *H₂eusōs“dawn”, *H₂eus-tero-“east”, *H₂euso-“gold” | eastern(< OEēasterne) | ON austr“east” | aurōra“dawn” (< *ausōsa, by rhot), aurum“gold” | Doric āṓs“dawn”; Aeolicaúōs, ā́wōs“dawn” | uṣās (uṣásas), acc. uṣā́sam“dawn” | Av ušā̊ (ušaŋhō), acc. ušā̊ŋhǝm“dawn” | OCS (j)utro“morning” | OPrusaustra“dawn”, auss“gold”; Lith aušra“dawn”, auksas“gold”; Latvausma, ausmina“dawn” | OIr fāir “sunrise”, W gwawr “dawn” < *wōsri- | ?os-ki“gold” | ?A wäs “gold” | ||
| *ĝʰyem-, ĝʰeim-“winter” | ON gói“winter month” | hiems“winter” | kʰeĩma“winter” | híma– “winter”, hemantá-“in winter” | Av zyā̊ (acc. zyąm, gen. zimō) “winter” | OCS zima“winter” | OPruszeima“winter”, Lithžiema“winter” | Gaul Giamonios“winter month”;OIr gam “winter”, gem-adaig “winter night”; OW gaem“winter” | jmeṙ“winter”, jiwn“snow” | Ghegdimën, Toskdimër(ë)“winter” | ? A śärme“winter”; ? B śimpriye“winter”. | gimmanza“winter”, gimi “in winter” | |
| *semh₂-“summer” | summer(< Old Englishsumor) | OHGsumar, OIcsumar“summer” | sámā“season; year” | Av ham-“summer”; Pers hâmin“summer”; Khot-Sakahamāñarva“summer season” | Gaul Samon(ios)“summer month”;OIr sam“summer”; OWham, OBret ham“summer” | OArm am“year”, amaṙn“summer” | A şme“summer”; B ṣmāye “summer” (adj.), ywārś-ṣmañe“midsummer” | ||||||
| *wés-r̥, wes-n-és“spring” | ON vár“spring” | vēr“spring” | (w)éar“spring” | vasan-tá-“spring” | Av vaŋri “in spring”; OPersϑūra-vāhara- | OCS vesna“spring” | OPruswassara“spring”, Lithvasara“summer”, pavasaris“spring”, vėsu“cool” | OIr errach“spring”< *ferrach< *wesr-āko-; OWguiannuin “in spring” < *wes-n̥t-eino- | garun“spring”< *wesr- | ||||
| *wet- “year”, *per-ut- “last year” | wether“castrated male sheep” (< OEweþer), | OHGwidar“male sheep”, MHG vert“last year” <- *per-ut-, ON fjorð“last year” <- *per-ut- | vetus (veteris)“old” (perīre) “to die” | (w)étos“year”, pérusi “last year” | vatsá-, vatsará-“year”, par-út “last year” | Sogdianwtšnyy(read wat(u)šanē) “old” | OCSvetŭchŭ “old” | OLithvẽtušas“old” | MIr feis, Cornishguis “sow” < *wet-si- | heru “last year” < *peruti | vit (pl. vjet) “year” | witt-“year” | |
| *h₂et- “to go, year” | annus < atnus“year” | átati “(it) goes, walks, wanders”; hā́yana-“yearly” | |||||||||||
| *yeH₁r- “year” | year (< OE ġēar) | jēr “year” | hōrnus“this year’s” < *hōyōr- | hōra “time, year” < *yoH₁r- | Av yārə“year” | Russ. CHjara “spring” | OLithJórė“spring festival” | W iâr “hen”, MIreir-īn “fowl” | |||||
| *h₂óyu “long time, lifetime” | age (< Lat. aetat-) | aevumaeternum, aeternitas“lifetime” | āyus “life, age” (as in the word āyur·veda, “knowledge of (long) life”) |
Religious practices and ideas
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ǵʰew- “to pour, libate, invoke” | god (< OEgod < PIE. ǵʰutós“invoked, libated”) | fundō “I pour” | hotrá“libation”; hotṛ “priest, offerer of libations”; juhóti “to worship, sacrifice, present an oblation”; hóma“oblation, a Vedic ritual” | ||||||||||
| *h₁yaǵ- “to sacrifice, worship” | ieientō “to eat breakfast” | hágios“devoted to the gods, holy, pious” | yájati “(s/he) worships”; yajña“worship, devotion, prayer”; yájus“religious reverence, worship, sacrifice”; | ||||||||||
| *ḱréd·dʰh₁eti“to believe” <*ḱred- “heart” +*dʰh₁eti “place” | creed, credo < Lat crēdō | crēdō “I believe, I trust in, I confide in” | śraddhā́“faith, trust, confidence, loyalty”, śrad-dadʰāti“(he) trusts, believes” | Av zrazdā-“to believe” < *srazdā | Old Irishcretim, Wcredaf “I believe” | ||||||||
| *ḱwen-, *ḱwen-tos “holy” | Av spəṇta“holy” | OCS svętŭ“holy” | Lithšveñtas“holy” |
Unclassified
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *gʰedʰ- “to unite, join, suit” | good (< OEgōd); gather (< OEgaderian); together (< OEtogædere) |
godǔ“suitable time, holiday, feast, right time, time, term, year” | |||||||||||
| *bʰed- “to improve, make better” | better (< OEbetera); batten (< ON batna“to grow better, improve, recover”); boot (< OE bōt“help, relief, advantage, remedy”) |
bhadrá-“blessed, auspicious, fortunate, prosperous, happy; good, gracious, friendly, kind; excellent, fair, lovely, pleasant, dear” | |||||||||||
| *h₂el- “to grow, nourish” | old (< OEeald, ald); alderman (< OEealdorman) | aljan “to cause to grow fat, fatten” | *oleō (*olēre)“I grow”; alō (alere) “I foster, I nourish; I raise”; alimentum“food, nourishment; obligation to one’s parents”; alumnus“nourished, fostered”; alimōnia“food, nourishment”; altus “high, tall”; indolēs“innate, inborn; talent”; adolescēns“growing up”; adultus“grown-up, matured” |
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| *h₃erdʰ- “to increase, grow; upright, high” | arbor (< OLatarbōs < PIta*arðōs) “tree (high plant)”; arduus “lofty, high, steep, elevated; arduous” |
orthós“straight, upright, erect; straight forward” | ūrdhvá “rising, raised, erected; upright, high, above”; ṛ́ddhi “growth, increase; prosperity; elevation” |
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| *bʰeh₂g- “to divide, distribute, allot” | baksheesh(< Pers baxšidan“to give, grant, bestow”); -phagy See Greek | éphagon “I ate, devoured (took my share)” | bhakṣá- “food, drink, delight”; bhájati “to distribute, divide, allot, chooe, serve” | ||||||||||
| *bʰeh₂- “to shine, glow” | faveō “I favor”; favor “id”; faustus“favorable, fortunate”; fautor“patron, protector, promoter” |
phaínō “I shine, appear, bring to light” | bhā́s “light”; bhānú “light, ray, sun” | ||||||||||
| *bʰewg- “to enjoy, benefit” | fungor “I perform, execute, discharge; finish, complete, end”; fūnctiō“performance, execution (of a task)” |
bhuj-, bhunákti “(s/he) enjoys; consumes, eats, drinks; uses, utilizes” | |||||||||||
| *bʰruHg- “to make use of, have enjoyment of” | brook (< OEbrūcan) “(old meaning) to use, enjoy”; Gerbrauchen“to need, require” |
fruor “I enjoy, derive pleasure from”; frūctus“enjoyment, delight, satisfaction; produce, product, fruit; profit, yield, outcome”; frūmentum“corn, grain” |
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| *deyḱ- “to point out”; | toe (< OEtā); token (< OEtācn); teach (< OEtǣċan) |
dīcō “I say, utter; mention, talk”; digitus“finger, toe, digit” |
díkē“custom, manner, fashion; law, order, right; judgement, justice”; δεῖγμᾰ“specimen, sample; pattern” |
diśáti “(s/he) points out, shows;teaches, informs; orders, commands, bids”; deśá- “point, region, spot, part; province, country” |
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| *h₃erbʰ- “to change status, ownership”; *h₃órbʰos“servant, worker, slave; orphan” |
erf“heritage, inheritance” (< OE erfe); Ger arbeit“work” |
orbus“orphaned, parentless” | orphanós“orphan; childless; bereft” | árbha-“orphan; child; small” | OCS rabŭ“servant, slave”; Czechorbota“hard work, slavery” > robot; Pol robić“to make, to do” |